Form; 


point  of   Experimental 
Psychology 


\   THESIS 

I'RESESTEl  I 

Department  of  PsY(HOLO<;^ 


in  partial  fulpillmk        

requirements  for  the  degree  of 
Doctor  of  Philosophy 


By 
JOHN  EDGAl^  rooVER 


Ajjrii   "^ 
[PubliBhed  as  No.  87  of  the  Psychological  Monograph*'] 


Formal  Discipline  from  the  Stand- 
point of  Experimental 
Psychology 


A  THESIS 

presented  to  the 

Department  of  Psychology 

Leland  Stanford  Junior  University 


IN  partial  fulfillment  of  the 

requirements  for  the  degree  of 

Doctor  of  Philosophy 


By 
JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 


April  8,  1912 
[Published  as  No.  87  of  the  Psychological  Monographs.] 


PREFATORY  NOTE 

The  writer  was  driven  into  this  problem  some  years  ago 
through  reaction  to  instruction  he  was  then  receiving  in  educa- 
tion. He  owes  a  debt  of  gratitude  to  those  men  who  so  faithfully 
and  painstakingly  retailed  the  newest  notions  culled  from  hereti- 
cal theory  or  hatched  from  the  early  and  somewhat  hasty  labora- 
tory work.  Interest  was  more  fundamental  in  school  training,  in 
those  days,  than  attention,  suggestibility  than  obedience,  and  vo- 
cational training  than  mental  training.  Sherrington's  'spinal 
dog'^  had  not  yet  removed  by  the  skillful  use  of  its  scratch-reflex, 
the  'reflex-arc'  from  the  vertebrate  nervous  system,  and  it 
was  supposed  that  we  had  been  endowed  with  a  mechanism 
by  which  reactions  to  stimuli  could  be  literally  'specific' ;  school 
training  consisted  in  'specific  discipline,'  which  was  hysterically 
opposed  to  'formal  discipline.'  Nor  had  the  "All  or  None" 
principle  of  the  terrapin  heart,-  yet  suggested  for  mental  develop- 
ment the  efficacy  of  strenuous  innervation;  training  needed  no 
spur  but  interest.  Generous  acknowledgment  of  all  those  incen- 
tives is  hereby  recorded;  without  them  this  investigation  would 
not  have  been  made. 

The  writer  is  under  many  other  obligations :  First  and  fore- 
most to  the  Head  of  the  Department  of  Psychology,  Dr.  F.  An- 
gell,  whose  courteous  extension  of  laboratory  facilities  and  whose 
encouragement,  advice,  and  assistance,  have  put  the  writer  hope- 
lessly in  debt ;  to  Professor  Lillien  J.  Martin,  for  kindly  interest 
and  helpful  suggestions ;  to  Miss  Ruth  Adele  Sampson  for  valued 
assistance  in  the  correction  of  the  manuscript;  and  to  the  follow- 
ing groups,  almost  wholly  of  fellow-students,  who  cheerfully  and 
faithfully  performed  the  onerous  yet  indispensable  offices  of 
reagents;  those  whose  names  are  starred  underwent  periods  of 
arduous  training  besides  taking  the  tests  : 

*  Sherrington :  Integrative  action  of  the  nervous  system.     1906.  Ch.  IV. 
'Stiles:    Am.  Phys.     Ed.,  1910,  15:1-5. 

iii 

335898 


iv  PREFATORY  NOTE 

In  the  experiments  on  Word-Marking  and  Weight-Lifting: 
*Mr.  Geo.  Snow-Gibbs. 


In  the  experiment  on  Discrimination : 

*Mr.   G.   Altnow, 
*Mr.    T.    Nakamura, 
*Mr.    K.    Yasuda. 

In  the  experiment  on  Reaction  with 

*Miss   E.   Crandall, 
*Dr.    F.    x^ngell, 
*Miss    Evelyn    Brooks, 

Miss  Reba  Bland, 

Miss  Rowena  C.  Bush, 

Miss  Luella  E.  Behrens, 

In  the  experiment  on  Attention : 
*Miss    Christine    Madison, 
*Miss    Elizabeth    F.    Lanktree, 
*Miss    Susan    M.    Looney, 
*Mr.    William    T.    Root, 
*Mr.  Joel   A.    Snell, 
*Mr.    Arthur    Heche, 
*Dr.  F.  Angell, 

Mrs.    Margaret    E.    Coover, 

Mr.    Franklin    F.    Wolff, 

Miss    Helen    M.    Clift. 

Miss   Emma   G.   Gill, 

Miss  Beatrice  E.  Freuler, 

Miss    Ruth    A.    Sampson, 

Miss    .Rose    F.    Emery, 

Miss  Bertha  Van  Zwalenburg, 

In  the  experiment  on  Reproduction: 

*Miss    Alma    Holmes, 

*Miss   Gertrude  D.  Workman. 

*Mr.  William  T.  Root, 

Miss  Susan  M.  Toy, 

Miss  Mabel  I.  Clark, 

Miss  M.  Dorothy  Parkinson, 

Miss  Nellie  Allen, 


Miss  Bernice  C.  Rowell. 
Miss  Bonnye  Anderson, 
Miss  Gertrude  B.  Weaver. 

Discrimination  and  Choice: 

Miss  Mabel  McKibben, 
Mr.  H.  George, 
Mr.  Geo.  Snow-Gibbs. 
Miss  Mila  L.  Coffin, 
Miss  Ruth  Cain, 
Miss  Anita  E.  Sudden, 


Miss  Ray  Weaver, 
Miss  Helen  E.  Evans, 
Miss  Edith  G.  Engelhard, 
Miss    Maud    H.    Bassett, 
Miss    Nina    E.    Moise, 
Mr.  Geo.  L.  Righter, 
Mr.    Charles   L.    Allen, 
Mr.   Asa   C.   Dimon, 
Mr.   Roscal   L.   Draper, 
Mr.   Stanley  M.  Reeve, 
Mr.   Lloyd   I.   Tilton, 
Mr.  Alexander  Davis, 
Mr.  Merton  J.  Price, 
Mr.  Zeb.  A.  Terry, 
Mr.   Robert  W.   Wilcox. 


Miss   Mabel  B.   Angell, 
Miss  Ruth  Hutchinson, 
Mr.   Harold  A.   Hughes, 
Mr.   William  H.   Bloeser, 
Mr.  E.  Leib, 
Mr.  Earl  T.  Dutton, 
Mr.  Herbert  L.  Hubbard. 


CONTENTS 


PART  I.     ORIENTATION 
I.  Introduction i 

II.  Evidence  from  the  literature  of  relationship  between 

mental  processes 5 

1.  Habituation  to  Distraction 5 

2.  Sensitivity    5 

3.  Discrimination 6 

4.  Association   7 

5.  Reaction 9 

a.  Interference 10 

6.  Memory   I4 

7.  Voluntary  control 3° 

8.  Summary   3^ 

PART  II.    EXPERIMENTAL 

I.  Principally  Quantitative   34 

1 .  Experiments  on  the  more  complex  processes 34 

a.  Marking  out  words 34 

( I )   Conclusion 3^ 

b.  Estimating  weights 39 

( I )   Conclusion 4^ 

2.  Experiments  on  the  more  simple  processes 42 

a.  Sensible  discrimination 42 

( 1 )  Control  experiment 44 

(2)  Results 44 

(3)  Conclusion    46 

b.  Reaction  with  discrimination  and  choice  ....  50 

( 1 )  Control  experiment 5^ 

(2)  Results    53 

(a)  Errors 53 

(b)  Time 56 

(3)  Conclusion    61 

V 


CONTENTS 


II.  Principally  Qualitative 64 

1.  Experiment  on  Attention  (Variability  in  mental 

processes)   70 

a.  The  tests 72 

b.  The  training 73 

c.  Apparatus  and  procedure 74 

d.  The  training  results 82 

1 )  Extensive  threshold  of  attention 82 

2)  Learning  12-letter-rectangles 94 

3)  Reaction  to  sound loi 

4)  Memory  training 103 

e.  The  test  results 106 

1 )  Reaction  to  sound 108 

2 )  Marking  out  a's 113 

3)  Marking  out  o's 116 

4)  Card-sorting    118 

5)  Typewriter-reaction 126 

6)  Controlled  reaction   131 

7)  Sound  discrimination    134 

8)  Memory  of  sounds 138 

9)  Memory  of  consonants 142 

o)   Memory  of  numerals 145 

i)   Memory  of  visual  signs 148 

2)  Memory  of  associated  pairs 149 

3)  Learning  12-letter-rectangles.    Free.  .  150 

4)  Same  (With  distraction)    154 

5)  Word-completion 157 

6)  Trains  of  ideas   158 

7)  Extensive   threshold   of   visual   atten- 
tion.    Free   160 

8)  Same  (With  distraction)    163 

9)  Tapping 164 

f.  Extent  of  variability 167 

g.  Causes  of  variability 171 . 

h.  The  practice  curve 173 

i.  General  effect  of  special  practice 178 

j.  Conclusion    181 

2.  Experiment  on  Reproduction 184 

a.  The  tests   186 

b.  The  training   188 


CONTENTS  vii 

c.  Training  results 190 

( 1 )  Processes    190 

(2)  Quantitative    196 

d.  Test  results  199 

( 1 )  Recognition  or  choice  of  one  of  two 

letters   199 

(a)  Introspective  analysis 199 

(b)  Quantitative  analysis 200 

(2)  Reproduction  and  recognition  of  letters  205 

(3)  Sound  discrimination 206 

(a)  Processes   206 

(b)  Scores   211 

(4)  Memory  for  visual  symbols 211 

(a)  Processes   211 

1 )  Immediate  memory 212 

2)  Complete  learning 212 

(b)  Scores   214 

i)   Immediate  memory 214 

2)   Complete  learning 215 

( c )  Summary   217 

e.  Conclusion    217 

3.  Critique  of  the  Test-training-test  type  of  experi- 

ment     219 

4.  Analysis  of  the  'Common  Factor' 224 

a.  Factors  involved  in  a  single  experiment  ....  226 

b.  Practice-effect  upon  these  factors 22y 

c.  'Spread  of  Training' 230 

d.  'Transference'    230 

e.  Both  kinds  of  General  Effect  selected  from 

former  experience    231 

f.  Provisional  classification  of  Common  Factors  232 

III.  Conclusion   234 

IV.  Bibliography    243 

APPENDIX    A. 

^Marking  out  words  (Text  pp.  34ff),  Tables  I-II,  Plates 

I-VII    259,  261 

Estimating   weights    (Text    pp.    39ff),    Tables    III-X, 

Plates  Vlli-XII 260,  268 

Sensible  discrimination  (Text  pp.  42ff),  Tables  XI-XIX  269 
Reaction    with    discrimination    and   choice    (Text   pp. 

5off),  Tables  XX-XXVIII,  Plates  XIII-XVIII.  .  .  274 


viii  CONTENTS 

APPENDIX  B.    Data  relevant  to  the  Experiment  on  Attention, 

(Text  pp.  yofi) 

Fig.     I.  Symbol  on  cards  (Text  p.  76) 288 

Fig.     2.  Arrangement  of  compartments  (Text  p.  76)  .    288 

Fig.     3.  Instruction  to  reagents  (Text  p.  76) 288 

Fig,     4.  Sample  line  of  stimuli  for  typewriter-reaction 

(Text  pp.  52,  76)    289 

Fig.     5.  Classes  of  scientists,  etc.  (Text  p.  77) 289 

Fig.     6.  Series  of  stimuli  in  test  on  Controlled  reaction 

(Text  p.  yy)  289 

Fig.     7.  Series  of  intervals  in   Sound  discrimination 

(Text  pp.  yy,  78,  188)   290 

Fig.     8.  Symbols      used      in      recording      judgment 

(Text  p.  78)  290 

Fig.     9.   Series  in  memory  of  sounds  (Text  p.  78)  ... .   290 
Fig.   10.   Series    for    Memory    of    consonants,    digits, 

paired  associates  (Text  p.  79)   290 

Fig.   II.  Visual  signs  (Text  p.  79)   291 

Fig.   12.  Size  and  style  of  letter  used  in  Tests  13  and 

17  (Text  pp.  80,  82)   291 

Fig.  13.  Word-Completion  list  of  letters  (Text  p.  80).  291 
Fig.  14.  Practice    curves    of    Training   on    Extensive 
threshold    of    visual   attention    (like   Test    17) 

(Text  pp.  83,  93) 291 

Fig.   15.  Practice  curves  of  Training  on  Learning  12- 

letter-rectangles  (like  Test  13)  (Text  p.  94)   292 
Fig.   16.  Curves  showing  increase  in  complexity  of  pro- 
cess as  effect  of  practice  in  Learning  12- 

letter-rectangles  (Text  pp.  95,  176) 292 

Fig.  17.  Curves  showing  change  in  kind  of  product  as 
effect    of    practice    in    Learning    12-letter- 

rectangles  (Text  p.  174)   293 

Fig.  18  Curves  showing  change  in  processes  in  Train- 
ing on  Simple  Reaction  to  sound  (Text 
p.   loi )    294 

APPENDIX      C.      Scoring  the    12-letter-rectangle    (Text 

pp.  80,  187) 295 

APPENDIX  D.  Influence  of  subliminal  differences  upon 
judgment  in  stimulus  comparison  (discrim- 
ination)  (Text  p.  185)   299 

INDEX 301 


PART  I 

ORIENTATION 
I.  Introduction 

The  conception  of  formal  discipline^  belongs  to  the  philosophy 
of  education,  and  has  dominated  the  educational  theory  of  the 
greater  institutions  of  higher  learning  from  their  inception  to 
the  present  day.  Twenty  years  ago  it  was  vigorously  assailed, 
however,  by  some  of  our  eminent  educators^  who  claimed  that 
our  schools  are  suffering  under  the  bonds  of  this  tradition.  It 
was  charged  that  the  conception  is  a  myth;  that  the  sole  end  of 
study  is  the  information  acquired  by  it;  that  no  subject  of  study 
is  of  greater  value  than  another  except  upon  grounds  of  adjust- 
ing the  student  directly  to  his  social,  economic,  industrial,  en- 
vironment. It  was  explained  that  the  'Dogma'  rests  upon  the 
'faculty  psychology'  which  lies  respectably  buried  under  the  dust 

*  Formal  Culture:  (formale  Bildung;  education  formelle).  The  doctrine 
of  the  applicability  of  mental  power,  however  gained,  to  any  department  of 
human  activity.  This  doctrine  is  used  as  a  standing  argument  for  so-called 
disciplinary  education,  especially  that  in  pure  mathematics  and  classical 
languages.  The  assumption  is  that  if  the  student  masters  these,  he  will 
thereby  acquire  a  mental  power  that  can  be  applied  almost  equally  well 
to  any  kind  of  practical  or  professional  life.  This  gymnastic  theory  of 
education  involves  the  idea  that  it  does  not  matter  upon  what  the  mind  is 
exercised,  provided  only  the  exercise  be  rigorous  and  long-continued. — 
DeGarmo  in  Baldwin's  "Dictionary  of  Philosophy  and  Psychology." 

This  expression  has  been  used  to  indicate  the  general  reaction  upon  the 
ability  of  a  student  that  is  by  many  supposed  to  spring  from  the  method  of 
study  rather  than  from  the  content  which  is  learned. — Ernest  N.  Henderson, 
in  "A  Cyclopedia  of  Education,"  edited  by  Paul  Monroe.  N.  Y. :  Macm.  191 1. 
P.  642. 

*  Vid.  Hinsdale,  B.  A. :  The  dogma  of  formal  discipline.  Proc.  N.  E.  A., 
1894,  p.  625 ;  also  his  book  "Studies  in  Education,"  Ch.  2. 

DeGarmo :    "On  the   report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten."     Ed.   Rev.   1894, 
7  ■277. 
Rein:    Outlines  of  Pedagogics  (tr.  Van  Liew)   1895.    P.  61. 
DeGarmo :    Herbart  and  the  Herbatians.     P.  26. 


■2  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

of  a  century,  and  that  its  continued  vitality  is  derived  from  its 
momentum  in  a  field  in  which  the  'resistance'  of  modern  experi- 
mental psychology  is  wanting.  It  is  true  that  the  challenge  was 
made  by  men  of  'Herbartian'  training,  that  the  formal  defini- 
tions of  the  conception  were  made  by  them  and  would  not  be 
entirely  satisfactory  to  proponents,  and  that  the  Herbartian  psy- 
chology is  equally  dead. 

Nevertheless,  the  point  in  dispute  has  shifted  into  psycho- 
logical territory,  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  Experimental 
Psychology  has  come  in  contact  with  the  venerable  doctrine. 

The  psychological  question  at  issue  concerns  the  relations 
which  exist  between  the  various  mental  processes.  According 
to  the  'faculty  psychology,'  the  improvement  of  observation,  or 
of  reasoning,  or  of  memory,  or  of  any  of  the  thirty-five  faculties 
of  the  mind,  in  one  field  of  experience  was  applicable  to  all  other 
fields  of  experience;  but  improvement  of  one  'faculty'  did  not 
affect  others.  According  to  the  Herbartian  psychology,  these 
'faculties'  are  abstractions,  adding  nothing  to  fact  and  affording 
no  explanation  of  mental  phenomena;^  the  Idea'*  is  the  sole  real 
content  of  the  mind  and  through  it  alone  are  mental  phenomena 
unified.  Training  of  the  mind  is  effected  through  the  appropria- 
tion of  ideas  and  is  limited  in  its  applications  to  the  field  of  ex- 
perience to  which  the  ideas  belong.     Both  of  these  psychologies 

'  Herbart's  criticism  of  the  'faculty  theory'  lies  in  the  two  following  ob- 
jections: (i)  'Faculties'  are  mere  possibilities;  there  is  no  sensibility  before 
sensation ;  (2)  they  are  class-concepts,  obtained  by  a  provisional  abstraction 
from  the  inner  experience,  and  then  raised  to  the  rank  of  fundamental  forces 
of  the  mind  and  used  for  the  explanation  of  our  internal  processes.  Both 
criticisms  are  as  telling  against  the  established  sciences  of  physics  and 
chemistry  as  against  the  'faculty-theory.'  (i)  The  forces  of  physics  do 
not  exist  apart  by  themselves  any  more  than  do  the  'faculties,'  but  only 
in  the  phenomena  called  their  effects;  (2)  they  are  abstracted  from  the  con- 
crete phenomena  and  are  class-concepts  used  for  the  explanation  of  the 
phenomena  themselves.  According  to  the  criticism,  there  is  no  gravitation 
before  the  falling  of  the  apple,  nor  can  it  as  a  class-concept,  be  used  to 
explain  the  fall  of  the  apple. 

*  This  Idea,  as  well  as  its  relations  to  the  emotions,  feelings,  and  im- 
pulses, is  hypothetical  and  does  not  at  all  square  with  the  facts  of  inner 
experience.  Vid.  Wundt:  Prin.  of  Phys.  Psychology.  (From  Ger.  Ed.  1893.) 
Pp.  i8ff. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  3 

have  performed  their  service  in  the  development  of  the  science 
and  are  now  of  but  historical  interest.  The  question,  therefore, 
so  far  as  their  authority  goes,  remains  open. 

Special  observation  and  investigation  have  sought  to  throw 
some  light  on  the  problem : 

( I )  The  contribution  of  formal  school  training  to  success  or 
eminence  in  practical  life  has  been  estimated.^  (2)  The  relation- 
ship between  undergraduate  scholarship  and  preeminence  in  the 
graduate  schools  of  law  and  medicine  has  been  reported,^  and 
the  standing  of  our  Rhodes  scholars  has  been  compared  with  that 
of  their  fellows  in  Oxford  who  had  followed  similar  (classical) 
courses  but  with  more  rigorous  training."^  (3)  Experimental 
pedagogy  has  already  contributed  a  large  amount  of  data  con- 
cerning the  relationship  between  capacities  employed  in  school 
work  or  between  school  subjects.^     (4)  And  the  data  of  Cross- 

'  Halleck :    Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  Dep't  of  Superintendence.     1906.     Pp.  34-41. 

Pritchett:  Fifth  annual  report  of  the  President  and  the  Treasurer  of 
the  Carnegie  Foundation  for  the  advancement  of  teaching.     1910.     P.  56. 

Dexter :  High-Grade  Men  in  College  and  out.     Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  1903.  62  .42g. 

Schuster:  The  promise  of  youth  and  the  performance  of  manhood,  a 
statistical  inquiry.  Univ.  London.  Galton  Eugenics  Laboratory  Memoirs. 
1907.    IIL 

Lowell:  Appendix  to  report  of  the  President  and  the  Treasurer  of  Har- 
vard College.   1908-1909. 

Davis:   An  afternoon  view  of  college  life.    Stanford  Alumnus,  1912,  13:231. 

E.g.,  Cases  as  extreme  as  the  following  can  scarcely  be  ignored :  Every- 
one knows  how  formal  and  how  unrelated  to  occidental  affairs  is  the  dis- 
cipline Chinese  officials  have  undergone,  yet  "'it  is  not  on  record  in  Washing- 
ton that  the  other  foreign  legations  are  in  the  habit  of  making  allowance 
for  any  lack  of  acumen  on  the  part  of  the  Chinese  legation^  on  the  con- 
trary, the  Chinese  legation  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  ablest  accredited  to 
this  country."  F.  Angell,  in  a  Commencement  Address  at  Castellejo  School, 
Palo  Alto,   California,    191 1. 

'  Lowell :  College  studies  and  the  professional  schools.  Harvard  Grad- 
uate Mag.,  1910,  19:205. 

'  Pritchett :    Ibid.  p.  65. 

*  Catherine   Aiken :     Methods   of   mind    training.     Am.    Bk.    1895. 

Harper's  Mag.  Editorial  by  Charles  Dudley  Warner.    March,   1895. 

Winch :  Accuracy  in  school  children.  Does  improvement  in  numerical 
accuracy  transfer  [to  accuracy  in  arithmetical  reasoning]  ?  Jr.  Ed.  Psych., 
1910,   I  :557. 


4  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

Education  have  been  found  to  contribute  something  toward  an 
understanding  of  the  'general'  nature  of  voluntary  control  in  its 
various  phases.^ 

It  rests,  however,  with  experimental  psychology  to  determine 
precisely  the  kind  and  extent  of  relationship  that  exists  between 
the  various  mental  processes,  and  this  task  appears  to  be  well 
begun.  There  are  already  at  hand  some  results  pertinent  to  the 
question  to  be  found  scattered  throughout  the  literature;  and  as 
a  result  of  direct  experimental  investigation,  the  extent  and 
causes  of  positive  and  negative  influences  upon  one  set  of  mental 
processes  by  reason  of  training  upon  another  are,  within  the 
limits  of  the  respective  investigations,  revealed.  To  these  results 
we  shall  now  turn,  in  the  next  chapter,  before  detailing  our  own 
experimentation  in  this  laboratory. 

Winch :  Further  work  on  Numerical  accuracy  in  school  children.  Idem. 
2:262. 

Starch :  Transfer  of  training  in  Arithmetical  operations.  Jr.  Ed.  Psych., 
191 1,   2:306. 

Wallin :  Spelling  efficiency  in  relation  to  age,  grade  and  sex,  and  the 
question    of    transfer.     Ed.    Psy.    Monograph.     Warwick,    191 1. 

Winch :  Transfer  of  improvement  in  memory  in  school  children.  Br.  Jr. 
Psych.,   1908,  2:284;   3:386. 

Winch :  Some  relations  between  substance  memory  and  productive  im- 
agination in  school  children.    Idem.  191 1,  4:95- 

Bagley:  Educative  process.     1907,  Ch.  XIII,  p.  208. 

Ruediger :  Indirect  improvement  of  mental  function  through  ideals.  Ed. 
Rev.,  1908,  36:364. 

'  Scripture,  Smith,  and  Brown :  On  the  education  of  muscular  control 
and  power.     Yale  Psych.  Studies,  1894,  2:115. 

Scripture :  Recent  investigations  at  the  Yale  Laboratory.  Psych.  Rev., 
1898,  6:246. 

Scripture:     Cross-Education.     Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  1900,  56:589. 

Davis:  Researches  in  Cross-education.  Yale  Psych.  Studies,  1898,  6:6; 
1900,  8:64. 

Woodworth :    Accuracy  of  voluntary  movement.     Psych.   Rev.   Mon.,   No. 

13.    1899- 
Dresslar :     Some  influences  which  affect  rapidity  of  voluntary  movements. 

Am.  Jr.  Psych.,    1892,  4:514- 

Raif:  Ueber  Fingerfertigkeit  beim  Clavierspiel.  Zeits.  f.  Psychol.,  1900, 
24 :352-5. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  5 

II.  Evidence  From  the  Literature  of  Relationship 
Between  Mental  Processes 
The  results  of  experimentation  in  the  psychological  laboratory 
that  have  come  before  the  writer's  notice  and  that  have  a  direct 
bearing  upon  the  question  of  the  kind  and  extent  of  relationship 
between  mental  processes,  are  portrayed  here  in  topical  fashion, 
which  takes  them  out  of  their  chronological  order,  with  the  hope 
that  the  grouping  of  evidence  about  the  various  types  of  mental 
activity  will  prove  more  satisfactory  to  the  reader.  The  year 
of  the  published  results  can  be  seen  in  the  foot-note  references. 

I.  Habituation  to  Distraction 
Vogt^"  found  that  reacting  on  every  stroke  of  a  mentronome 
decreased  the  amount  of  continuous  adding  47.7% ;  that  seven 
days'  practice  reduced  this  to  14%  ;  that  the  effect  of  distraction 
upon  adding  caused  by  synchronously  reciting  series  of  letters 
was  decreased  by  practicing  adding  alone ;  that  the  adaptation  to 
the  distraction  of  reciting  series  of  letters  while  adding  reduced 
the  distraction  of  reacting  to  the  stroke  of  the  metronome  while 
learning  series  of  numbers  by  heart.  Among  his  conclusions  are : 
(i)  An  adaptation  (Gewohnung)  carries  over  from  one  special 
process  to  another;  (2)  Becoming  habituated  to  a  distraction 
while  exercising  one  function,  habituates  to  that  distraction  while 
exercising  other  functions. 

2.  Sensitivity 
Urbantschitsch^^  sought  to  determine  whether  there  is  a  cross- 
efifect  (Wechselwirkung)  between  the  senses.  ''While  a  uniform 
excitation  was  present  to  one  sense  a  sensation  was  occasioned 
through  another,  from  which  I  perceived  accurately  during  the 
functioning  of  the  new  sense  if  there  were  any  changes  in  the 
sensation  of  the  originally  stimulated  sense."  Listening  to  a  tone 
lowered  the  limen  for  light ;  it  also  affected  olfactory,  gustatory, 

"  Vogt :  Ueber  Ablenkbarkeit  und  Gewohnungsfahigkeit.  Psy.  Arbeit., 
1899-1900,   3 :62. 

"  Urbantschitsch :  Uber  den  Einfluss  einer  Sinneserregung  auf  die  iibrigen 
Sinnesempfindungen.     Archiv  f.  d.  ges.  Physiologic,  42:154. 


6  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

tactual,  and  thermal  sensations.  "The  influence  of  one  sense- 
excitation  upon  the  sensations  from  other  senses  appears  clearly 
to  be  a  valid  physiological  law." 

Epstein^-  set  himself  to  either  controvert  or  support  Urbant- 
schitsch's  results  by  more  carefully  controlling  the  conditions  of 
the  experiment.  He  sought  to  find  the  influence  of  a  sound- 
sensation  upon  (a)  acuteness  of  vision,  (b)  acuteness  of  color- 
perception.  The  observer  sat  in  a  dark  room  and  placed  his  eye  to 
a  telescope ;  the  cap  was  removed  and  he  reported  the  number  of 
concentric  rings  on  a  rotating  disc ;  the  second  stimulus  was  given 
during  this  fixation  and  he  reported  changes  in  the  field  of  vision 
occasioned  by  it.  164  Experiments  were  made.  Upon  60%  of 
the  reagents  the  sound  impression  increased  both  acuteness  of 
vision  and  acuteness  of  color-perception;  upon  the  other  40% 
it  increased  only  the  former. 

Dunlap  and  Wells^^  gave  simultaneously  visual  and  auditory 
stimuli  to  four  reagents  in  reaction-time  experiments,  and  found 
that  when  the  auditory  stimulus  was  reacted  to,  the  reaction  time 
was  about  10  sigma  longer  than  to  the  auditory  stimulus  alone; 
if  the  visual  stimulus  was  reacted  to,  the  reaction-time  was  about 
20  sigma  longer  than  to  the  auditory  alone,  but  40  sigma  shorter 
than  to  the  visual  alone. 

3.  Discrimination 

"Volkmann^"*  found  that  by  practice  of  the  left  arm  in  dis- 
crimination until  an  initial  ability  of  23.6  improved  to  11.2,  the 
right  arm  without  any  practice  showed  an  improvement  from 
26.4  to  15.7.  Similar  results  were  found  for  other  cases  of  cross- 
education  and  for  the  spread  of  improvement  in  discrimination 
of  touch  at  certain  spots  on  the  skin  to  neighboring  spots." 

Bennett*^  trained  16  children  (average  age  11  years)  of  the 

"  Epstein :  Ueber  Modification  der  Gesichtswahrnemung  unter  dem  Ein- 
flusse   von  gleichseitigen   Toneindriicken.     Zeits.    f.    Biol.,    1896,   2>i  -28. 

"  Dunlap  and  Wells :  Some  experiments  with  reactions  to  visual  and  audi- 
tory stimili.    Psych.  Rev.,  1910,  17:319- 

"  Volkmann :  Ueber  den  Einfluss  der  Uebung  auf  das  Erkennen  raumlichen 
Distanzen.  Ber.  der  Kgl.-Sachs.  ges.  d.  Wiss.  (Math.  Phys.  Col.)  1858,  10:38. 
Quoted  by  Thorndike :     Educational  Psych.     (First  Ed.)    P.  86. 

"Bennett:    Formal  Discipline.    Teachers  College,  1907,  (pp.  59ff). 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  7 

Speyer  school  in  New  York  City,  twice  a  week  from  October  to 
March  on  discrimination  of  shades  of  blue,  using  a  Milton-Brad- 
ley color-wheel.  Judgments  were  made  on  whether  the  inner 
disc  or  the  outer  ring  was  the  deeper  blue  (greater  saturation). 
The  stimuli  were  thus  presented  simultaneously.  Tests  were 
taken,  before  and  after  this  training,  on  discrimination  of  shades 
formed  by  mixtures  of  (i)  red+white,  (2)  yellow-fgreen, 
(3)  orange -f  black,  and  of  (4)  pitch.  For  the  latter  test  a  Gilbert 
tone-tester  was  used,  F  sharp  being  taken  for  the  norm.  Effi- 
ciency was  calculated  in  degrees  of  change  of  the  sectors,  or 
points  of  tone-change,  corresponding  to  the  range  of  the  judg- 
ment "same."  The  average  effect  of  training  was  a  reduction 
of  this  range:  Boys  2.7°  to  0.8°;  girls  4.5°  to  0.7°;  or  boys 
65%,  girls  80%.    The  range  was  reduced  in  the  four  tests: 


I 

2 

3 

4 

Boys 

79% 

60% 

65% 

28% 

Girls 

84% 

57% 

56% 

23% 

Since  the  First  and  Final  tests  were  separated  by  five  months, 
the  practice  effect  of  the  first  test  could  not  have  been  considera- 
ble. Clear  transfer  is  thus  shown  from  improvement  in  discrim- 
ination of  shades  of  blue  to  shades  of  other  colors,  and  in  a  less 
degree  to  discrimination  of  pitch. 

4.  Association 

Thorndike  and  Woodworth^®  trained  reagents  in  estimating 
areas,  weights,  and  lengths : 

Six  reagents  were  trained  in  estimating  areas  of  rectangles 
from  10-100  sq.  cm.  in  size,  "until  a  very  marked  improvement 
was  made."  Tests  were  taken  before  and  after  this  training  on 
estimating  areas  of : 

a.  Same  shape  and  same  size 

b.  "         "       but  140-200  sq.  cm.  in  size 

c.  "         "        "     200-300      "       "        " 

d.  Different  shape  and  same  size 

e.  "  "  "  100-140  sq.  cm.  in  size 

f.  "  "  "  140-200      "      "        " 

g.  "  "  "  200-240      "      "        " 
h.  "  "  "  240-over     "      " 

"Thorndike  and  Woodworth :  The  influence  of  improvement  in  one 
mental  function  upon  the  efficiency  of  other  mental  functions.  Psych.  Rev., 
1901,  8:247ff,  384ff. 


8  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

Efficiency  was  calculated  in  amount  of  average  error,  and  the 
final  results  were  given  in  per  cent  showing  the  proportion  of  late 
to  early  error.  In  the  whole  table  of  44  final  figures  13  show  lack 
of  improvement.  And  of  the  14  totals  of  the  two  tables,  only 
one  shows  lack  of  improvement.  The  average  results  of  four 
reagents  (from  Table  IV,  p.  384)  show  that  training  reduced 
error  to  48.4%  of  the  initial  amount;  that  improvement  was 
transferred  to  estimating  the  other  sizes  and  forms  to  the  fol- 
lowing per  cents  of  their  original  error:  a.  39,  b.  67,  c.  102,  d. 
62,  e.  50,  f .  78,  g.  86,  h.  yy ;  averages  for  two  other  reagents,  who 
omitted  c.  and  d.,  were  a.  66,  b.  61,  e.  61,  f.  84,  g.  84,  h.  76. 
Counting  the  complements  of  these  per  cents  of  error  as  per  cent 
of  gain,  the  gain  in  the  training  was  51.6%,  the  average  gain  in 
the  tests  within  the  field,  same  form,  was  61  %  ;  different  form, 
38%;  above  the  field,  same  form,  16%;  different  form,  51%; 
for  all  the  tested  abilities  it  was  29%.  The  extent  to  which 
the  special  practice  shows  general  effect  is,  therefore,  55%. 

Two  reagents  were  trained  on  a  set  of  seventeen  weights 
ranging  from  40-120  grams  inclusive,  5-gram  intervals,  and 
similar  except  in  weight.  Tests  w^ere  taken  before  and  after 
training,  on  estimating  (a)  8  common  objects  averaging  95.8 
grams,  the  weights  of  which  fell  within  the  field  of  40-120 
grams;  (b)  12  common  objects  averaging  736  grams,  the  weights 
of  which  fell  above  the  field  of  40-120  grams.  Efficiency  was 
calculated  in  deviations  in  grams.  W.  made  in  the  last  test  in  the 
training  series  51%  of  the  error  made  in  the  first  test,  T.  59.3%. 
W.  showed  in  the  after-training  test  on  objects  within  the  field 
over  100%  of  the  improvement  made  in  the  training  series;  T. 
32%  ;  W.  on  the  objects  above  the  field  gained  67%  ;  T.  showed 
no  improvement.  Averaging  the  gains  of  both  training  and  test 
series,  44.8%  improvement  was  made  in  the  former  and  27% 
in  the  latter.  As  a  result  of  the  whole  experiment  the  special 
practice  showed  general  effect  to  the  extent  of  60%. 

The  failure  of  transfer  of  improvement  to  diminish  as  the 
material  estimated  becomes  less  like  the  training  material  should 
be  noted,  for  its  bearing  on  the  proposed  explanation  for  trans- 
ference through  'identical  elements.' 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  9. 

5.  Reaction 

Angell  and  Moore^'  carried  out  a  long  series  of  experiments 
with  three  reagents  in  reaction-time,  in  which  the  responses  were 
made  with  the  hand,  the  foot,  or  the  Hps,  to  auditory  and  visual 
stimuli,  in  both  'sensorial'  and  'motor'  forms.  Most  of  the 
visual  series  were  not  begun  until  after  the  auditory  series  (of 
from  700  to  1500  reactions)  had  been  completed,  and  they  show- 
ed a  much  shorter  time  than  is  usual  for  reaction  to  visual 
stimuli;  the  authors  observed  that  the  form  of  reaction  was  the 
same  in  both  groups  and  that  the  decrease  in  time  in  the  latter 
must  be  referred  to  the  practice-effect  of  the  former. 

Gilbert  and  Fracker^^  tested  three  reagents  on  time  of  simple 
reaction,  and  time  of  reaction  with  discrimination,  to  sound 
stimuli,  light,  electrical,  and  tactual,  stimuli ;  then  trained  two  of 
them  on  reaction  with  discrimination,  and  one  on  simple  reaction, 
to  sound,  for  12  days.  Of  the  27  records  in  the  re-test  with  the 
other  stimuli,  25  showed  transference  of  improvement  to  both 
simple  reaction  and  reaction  with  discrimination. 

Thorndike  and  Woodworth^^  trained  five  reagents  in  reacting 
to  words,  in  reading  matter,  containing  both  the  letters  e  and  s, 
by  marking  out  the  words.  Before  and  after  the  training,  tests 
were  made  in  marking  out  ( i )  words  containing,  i-t,  s-p,  c-a,  e-r, 
on  similar  pages;  (2)  a-n,  l-o,  e-r,  on  pages  differing  from  the 
training  material  in  length  of  line,  size  of  type,  and  style  of 
matter;  (3)  misspelled  words  and  (4)  the  letter  A  from  pre- 
pared sheets.  Average  gain  in  the  training  was  38%.  In  the  " 
tests  the  average  per  cent  of  gain  was  for  (i)  21,  22,  10,  14; 
for  (2)  28,  33,  31;  for  (3)  16;  for  (4)  10.  The  transfer  of 
practice-effect  was  larger  for  (2)  (dissimilar  material)  than  for' 
(i)  (similar  material).  Altogether,  the  special  training  showed' 
general  effect  to  the  extent  of  44%. 

"Angell  and  Moore:  Reaction  time;  a  study  in  attention  and  habit.  Psych. 
Rev.,  1896,  3:245. 

"  Gilbert  and  Fracker :  Effect  of  practice  in  reaction  and  discrimination  for 
sound  upon  the  time  of  reaction  and  discrimination  for  other  forms  of 
stimuli.     Univ.  Iowa  Studies  in  Psych.,  1897,  i  :62. 

''Op.   cit. 


10  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

Carrie  W.  Liddle^"  sought  to  determine  whether  practice  in 
discrimination  and  sorting  of  one  set  of  cards  bearing  colors 
or  geometric  signs  would  assist  in  discriminating  and  sorting 
another  set  with  different  colors  or  signs.  Each  set  of  102  cards 
contained  six  colors,  or  six  designs,  was  shuffled  so  that  no  color 
or  device  repeated  itself,  and  was  sorted  into  six  compartments. 
The  first  six  cards  of  the  pack  determined  the  order  of  colors  in 
the  compartments  according  to  which  the  rest  of  the  pack  was 
to  be  sorted.  Nine  reagents  took  part  and  the  experiment  con- 
tinued two  semesters.  There  was  transference  of  practice-effect 
from  one  set  of  colors  to  the  other  set  of  colors,  and  to  the 
geometric  forms ;  and  from  one  set  of  geometric  forms  to  the 
other  and  to  the  colors.  Increased  powers  of  discrimination  and 
attention  were  thought  to  be  the  causes  of  transference. 

(a)  Interference 

Some  contributions  to  transference  of  practice  effect  point  out 
the  fact  that  the  effect  is  not  always  positive.  It  nevertheless 
indicates  functional  relationship  of  processes  and  is  therefore 
important.  Most  of  the  material  used  in  these  contributions 
consists  of  discriminative  reactions,  which  justifies  general  treat- 
ment in  this  place. 

Jastrow  and  Cairnes^^  found  that  when  two  mental  processes, 
as  (i)  finger-movements  involving  rhythm  and  counting,  and 
(2)  adding  or  reading,  are  carried  on  at  the  same  time,  the  fol- 
lowing effects  are  produced:  (a)  Simple  movements  are  not 
interfered  with;  (b)  maximum  beating  or  beating  in  groups  is 
interfered  with:  (c)  beating  in  two's  and  three's  (alternately) 
seriously  interferes  with  reading  aloud :  (d)  the  maximum  rate  of 
beating  hurries  the  mental  process. 

Bergstrom  has  reported  experiments  showing  interference 
clearly : 

"•Liddle:  Unpublished  thesis  for  the  degree  of  M.L.  at  the  University  of 
California.     May,    1904. 

**  Jastrow  and  Cairnes :  Interference  of  mental  processes.  Am.  Jr.  Psych., 
1891-2,  4:219. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  n 

First.22  (i)  A  pack  of  80  cards,  10  kinds  in  each  pack,  was 
distributed  upon  10  piles.  Another  pack  bearing  the  same  ab- 
stract words  at  the  top  was  distributed  immediately  after  upon 
re-arranged  places;  the  results  of  the  six  reagents  showed  inter- 
ference in  longer  time  for  the  second  pack.  (2)  Cards  with 
pictures  of  common  objects  sketched  upon  them  were  sorted  as 
before;  but  with  the  difference  that  the  time  between  the  packs 
was  varied  from  3  to  960  seconds.  Series  were  taken  by  four 
reagents  for  20  days.  Interference  was  shown  for  the  following 
intervals  (in  seconds)  between  packs:  3,  15,  30,  120,  480;  it 
decreased  regularly  with  the  increase  of  the  interval ;  two-thirds 
dropped  away  in  the  first  minute.  Time  of  sorting  decreased 
greatly  with  daily  practice  but  the  amount  of  the  interference  did 
not.  In  the  shorter  intervals  the  reagent  was  acutely  conscious 
of  it;  in  the  longer,  not  at  all.  If  the  interval  between  the  packs 
is  increased  to  24  hours,  the  second  pack  is  sorted  in  less  time; 
practice  effect  has  overcome  interference. 

Second.23  Miinsterberg's  "Gedachtnisstudien"  (Beihefte, 
Heft  4)  suggested  the  question,  "Can  a  given  association  func- 
tion automatically  while  some  effect  of  a  previous  and  different 
association  with  the  sense  stimulus  remains?"  Packs  of  80 
cards,  as  before,  were  sorted  on  ten  piles;  orders  of  piles  were 
changed  and  cards  were  changed.  The  answer  to  the  question 
is  affirmative :  under  certain  "simple  conditions,  interference  ef- 
fect of  an  association  bears  a  constant  relation  to  the  practice 
effect  and  is  equivalent  to  it." 

Bair^^  performed  two  experiments  in  which  the  practice  effect 
much  outweighed  interference:  (i)  "Six  keys  of  a  typewriter 
are  labeled  with  six  symbols  (letters  or  figures).  Fifty-five  of 
these  letters  or  figures,  in  chance  order,  are  now  shown  one  by 
one,  and  the  subject  on  seeing  one  taps  the  corresponding  key. 

^  Bergstrom :  Experiments  upon  physiological  memory  by  means  of  the 
interference  of  associations.    Am.  Jr.   Psych.,   1892-3,  5 :256. 

^  Bergstrom :  Relation  of  the  interference  to  the  practice  effect  of  an 
association.     Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  1894,  6:433. 

**Bair:  The  Practice  curve;  A  study  in  the  formation  of  habits.  Psych. 
Rev.  Mon.  Supp.,  1902,  No.  19. 


12  JOHN  EDGAR  C DOVER 

The  time  taken  to  tap  out  the  series  is  recorded.  Six  different 
symbols  are  then  used  with  a  new  series  composed  of  them,  and 
the  subject's  time  record  is  taken  as  before.  This  is  continued 
until  twenty  different  sets  of  symbols  have  been  used.  Although 
the  symbols  have  been  changed  each  time,  there  is  a  steady  im- 
provement, ranging  for  the  four  subjects  in  the  following  de- 
crease in  time:  62  to  52,  95  to  85,  71.5  to  58,  65  to  56.  The 
major  part  of  this  gain  could  not  have  been  due  to  merely  getting 
used  to  the  machine  or  to  the  general  features  of  the  experiments, 
for  the  fourth  subject  was  already  used  to  these  and  still  gained 
about  nine-tenths  as  much  as  the  other  three.^^ 

"(2)   The  other  experiment  consisted  in  taking  daily  records, 
for  twenty  days,  by  means  of  a  stop-watch,  of  the  time  required 

^"The  relation  between  interference  and  practice  has  also  been  just  re- 
cently shown  by  Dr.  Warner  Brown  (Habit  interference  in  card-sorting. 
Univ.  Calif.  Pub.  in  Psychol.,  1914,  1:269-321).  Fifty-two  playing-cards  were 
sorted,  according  to  suit,  into  a  row  of  four  boxes.  In  the  First  Series,  26 
reagents  worked  13  days,  sorting  8  packs  per  day  (except  on  the  3d,  5th,  and 
7th  days  when  4  packs  were  sorted),  during  the  first  8  days  with  the 
"original"  order  of  lebels  (  D  CHS),  during  the  9th  to  the  12th  days,  in- 
clusive, with  a  new  order  each  day  for  the  3d  to  the  6th  packs  and  the 
original  order  for  the  first  and  last  two  packs.  Interference  in  passing  from 
the  original  order  to  one  of  the  new  orders  ranged  from  1%  to  23%,  averag- 
ing about  12%  (op.  cit.,  p.  294).  But  in  spite  of  the  intrusion  of  practice  in 
antagonistic  reactions,  practice  on  the  original  order  resulted  in  considerable 
improvement :  The  actual  amount  of  improvement  from  the  8th  to  the 
13th  days  was  considerably  greater  than  from  the  4th  to  the  8th  days.  The 
constant  interference  with  practice  did  not  prevent  the  steady  improvement 
of  skill  with  the  original  order  (p.  307).  In  the  Second  Series,  18  students 
practiced  card-sorting  (twice  a  week)  for  8  days,  according  to  the  same 
procedure  as  above  except  that  24  hours  later  they  took  an  equal  practice 
on  the  order  C  S  D  H.  It  was  ascertained,  after  the  elimination  from  the 
two  series  of  all  but  14  pairs  of  scores  showing  equal  initial  ability,  (i)  That 
antagonistic  tendencies  were  carried  over  from  one  order  to  the  other  result- 
ing in  loss  of  speed  at  the  beginning  of  each  day's  work,  (2)  that  the  inter- 
ference phenomenon  was  confined  to  the  first  few  trials  of  the  day's  sorting, 
(3)  that  it  did  "not  affect  the  increase  of  skill  in  performing  the  action  in 
the  accustomed  manner"  (313),  and  (4)  that  practice  on  the  second  order 
helped  in  the  learning  of  the  first  order.  From  the  data  of  the  First  Series 
the  author  observed  that  "Four  trials  of  any  new  order  suffice  to  acquire  a 
speed  that  it  required  six  days,  or  40  trials,  to  acquire  in  the  original  prac- 
tice (307). 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  13 

to  repeat  the  alphabet  from  memory.  Each  day's  experiment 
was  as  follows :  First,  the  alphabet  was  repeated  as  rapidly  as 
possible  forward;  second,  the  letter  n  was  interpolated  between 
each  of  the  letters;  third,  the  alphabet  was  repeated  as  rapidly 
as  possible  backward;  and  last,  the  alphabet  was  repeated  back- 
ward interpolating  n  between  each  two  of  the  letters.  At  the 
end  of  twenty  practices  in  each  order  the  subject  repeated  the 
alphabet  first  forward  interpolating  instead  of  n  the  letter  x  and 
repeating  three  times;  secondly,  interpolating  r  and  repeating 
three  times;  then  lastly,  repeating  backward  and  in  like  manner 
interpolating  x  and  r  and  repeating  three  times.  There  was  im- 
provement in  the  test  series,  the  effect  of  the  twenty  days'  training 
with  the  training  series  being  to  put  the  abilities  in  the  test  series 
as  far  ahead  as  three  days  of  the  direct  training  would  have 
done."26 

He  concludes,  concerning  the  first  experiment,  that  "continued 
practice  in  one  order  increases  proportionately  the  ability  to  make 
quickly  and  accurately  a  new  and  antagonistic  order."^'^  And 
that  "any  bit  of  special  training  helps  us  to  find  ourselves.  It 
gives  us  a  method  of  orientation  which  leaves  us  in  our  reactions 
not  entirely  at  the  mercy  of  chance  even  in  unfamiliar  situations. 
The  experience  which  we  get  from  special  training  gives  us  a 
general  power  to  meet  any  entirely  new  situation  with  a  more 
favorable  response  than  had  we  not  had  this  special  training.^^ 

Louise  E.  Ordahl,^^  as  a  result  of  her  work  under  Sanford's 
direction  at  Clark,  concludes :  "What  Bair  says  in  regard  to  the 
general  ability  given  by  special  training,  e.g.,  'to  a  new  situation 
we  react  by  a  general  discriminative  reaction  and  are  more  likely 
to  hit  on  a  favorable  response  than  without  this  special  training,' 
is  true  of  all  learning.  For  no  matter  what  new  acquisition  is 
undertaken  if  it  is  possible  to  master  it,  some  previous  general 

^•Quoted  from  Thorndike :  Educational  Psychology  (ist  Ed.),  p.  92. 

"  Psych.  Rev.,  1903,  10 :58o. 

"  Bair :  Contributions  to  Phil.  Psych,  and  Ed.,  Columbia  University,  1902. 
Vol.  IX. 

"Ordahl:  Consciousness  in  relation  to  learning.  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  191 1. 
22:158. 


14  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

training  has  either  been  developed  by  the  individual  or  through 
the  inherited  co-ordinations  of  his  ancestors." 

McMein  and  Washburn^*'  performed  experiments  with  card- 
sorting  to  determine  "Whether  two  relatively  complex  habits  in- 
terfered with  each  other  in  a  less  or  greater  degree  than  two 
relatively  simple  habits."  The  more  complex  processes  showed 
less  interference. 

The  relation  between  interference  and  practice  effect  then  de- 
pends upon  the  time  between  practices  and  the  complexity  of  the 
processes.  The  work  of  Liddle  and  Blair  seems  to  indicate  that 
improvement  can  be  made  in  overcoming  interference  by  frequent 
changes  of  the  associations.  This  would  be  a  very  important 
general  effect  of  practice. 

6.  Memory 

Some  of  the  first  work  to  show  transference  of  practice  effect 
in  memorizing  was  done  by  Bergstrom^^  in  connection  with  his 
investigation  of  interference  in  mental  activity.  He  found  that 
upon  memorizing  four  series  of  non-sense  syllables  in  suc- 
cession, with  but  lo  seconds  between  series,  interference  was 
progressive;  i.e.,  each  successive  series  took  a  longer  time  to 
memorize.  Similar  progressive  interference  occurred  in  learning 
3  series  of  30  digits  in  succession.  This  result  conforms  with 
that  of  Ebbinghaus.^-  To  determine  whether  interference  under 
these  conditions  was  caused  by  recurring  materials  in  re-arrange- 
ment, another  experiment  was  performed  in  which  the  first  series 
of  non-sense  syllables  were  made  up  of  the  letters  of  the  first  half 
of  the  alphabet,  and  the  first  series  of  numbers  of  the  first  half  of 
the  digits,  while  the  second  series  were  made  up  of  the  remaining 
elements.  Since  no  materials  recurred  in  re-arrangement  and  the 
time  of  the  second  series  was  greatly  reduced,  interference  did  not 
take  place.     Interference  was  considered  an   "after-image"   of 

^  McMein  and  Washburn ;  Effect  of  mental  type  on  the  interference  of 
motor  habits.     Am.  Jr.    Psych.,   1909,  20:282. 

**  Bergstrom :  Influence  of  interference  upon  mental  activity.  Am.  Jr 
Psych.,  1894,  6 1267  ff. 

**  Ebbinghaus  :    Ueber  das  Gedachtniss,  1885,  S.  95. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  15 

central  activity,  and  since  it  occurs  with  associations  formed  from 
impressions  from  disparate  senses,  it  opposes  the  dismemberment 
of  memory  for  facts  into  different  sensory  types,  where  by  this 
distinction  it  is  meant  that  the  same  thing  can  be  learned  more 
easily  by  one  sense  than  by  another.  The  principal  fact  to  note 
here  is  that  the  practice  effect  of  the  first  series  on  the  second 
was  marked. 

Bennett^^  reports  transference  of  improvement  in  an  experi- 
ment on  memor}^  Two  reagents  took  part;  K.  trained  28  con- 
secutive days,  learning  16  lines  a  day  of  "In  Memoriam";  B. 
trained  35  consecutive  days,  learning  two  stanzas  of  "Faerie 
Queene"  daily.  K.  was  tested  on  learning  a  row  of  30  digits  each 
day  for  five  days,  before  and  after  the  training;  B.  was  tested 
on  learning  a  list  of  15  names  of  places  each  day  for  five  days, 
before  and  after  training.  K.  gained  in  tests  58%  in  the  reduc- 
tion of  time;  B.,  22%. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  investigation  of  the  general  effect 
of  special  training  in  memorizing,  because  of  both  the  length  and 
the  rigor  of  the  training,  is  that  of  Ebert  and  Meumann.^^  Al- 
though no  control  experiment  was  carried  along,  to  determine 
the  effect  of  the  tests  upon  themselves  in  the  repeated  'cross-sec- 
tions,' and  the  quantitative  results,  therefore,  cannot  be  accepted 
as  conclusive,  the  amounts  of  gain  shown  in  the  repeated  tests 
appear  sufficiently  great  to  create  a  presumption  in  favor  of  the 
authors'  conclusions  which  seem  more  fully  warranted  by  the 
qualitative  part  of  their  study. 

This  research  continued   from  November,    1902,  to  August, 

1903.  Six  reagents  were  trained  on  memorizing  non-sense  syl- 
lables, three  taking  64  series,  and  three  48  series,  of  12  syllables 
each.  Usually  the  work  of  one  day's  training  consisted  in  learn- 
ing two  new  series  and  relearning  two  series  that  had  been  learn- 
ed the  preceding  day.  The  number  of  the  days  of  training  for 
three  reagents  would  thus  be  32,  and  for  the  other  three  24. 

"Bennett:  op.  cit.  (pp.  45  f). 

**  Ebert  and   Meumann :    Ueber   einige    Grundf  ragen   der    Psychologic    der 
Uebungsphanomene  in  Bereiche  des  Gedachtnisses.     Archiv  f.  d.  ges.  Psych. 

1904,  4:1. 


l6  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

•  Before  the  training,  after  the  six  reagents  had  learned  32 
series,  after  the  training,  and  after  a  three-month  interval  of  no 
practice,  tests  were  given.  There  were  thus  four  'cross-sections' 
of  memory  capacities  taken :  One  for  the  purpose  of  determining 
initial  efficiency,  two  for  the  purpose  of  testing  the  influence  upon 
those  capacities  of  the  training  on  the  non-sense  syllables,  and  a 
final  test  given  after  a  long  interval  without  practice,  to  determine 
the  durabihty  of  that  influence.  The  tests  involved  (a)  'imme- 
diate memory'  or  the  capacity  of  reproducing  as  much  as  possi- 
ble of  a  series  of  stimuli  after  a  single  presentation;  and  (b) 
'complete  learning'  or  the  capacity  of  reproducing  a  series  per- 
fectly after  the  fewest  possible  number  of  presentations.  Reten- 
tion was  also  tested  by  relearning  after  24  hours  the  series  that 
had  been  'completely  learned.'  The  series  for  testing  both 
sorts  of  memorizing  consisted  of  both  sense  and  non-sense 
material,  and  were  presented  auditorially  for  the  tests  on  'im- 
mediate memory'  and  visually,  by  means  of  a  revolving  drum, 
for  the  tests  on  'complete  learning.' 
■  The  tests  and  results  of  the  first  three  cross-sections  follow : 

Table  I.     Effect  of  training  on  'immediate  memory.' 
(a)   Number  of  units  correctly  reproduced  after  one  presentation. 


Cros 

is-sections 

Per 

cent  gain 

r 
I 

2 

3 

2  over 

I     3 

over  2 

3  over 

Numbers 

7 

8.8 

11.2 

29 

26 

59 

Letters 

7.2 

9.5 

11-3 

2,6 

19 

S8 

Non-sense  syllablej 

i  5-2 

6.2 

7-i 

20 

19 

42 

*Italian  words 

5 

5.5 

6.5 

10 

18 

30 

*Lines  of 

poetry 

15 

17 

19 

13 

12 

27 

*Lines  of 

prose 

17 

19 

22 

12 

i6 

29 

*  Only  two  reagents. 

(b)  Number  of  units  reproduced  of  which  a  third  were  errors. 


Numbers                   10.3 

15.8 

17.7 

56 

12 

71 

Letters                      11.2 

14-3 

16 

28 

12 

43 

Non-sense  syllables  7.7 

1 1.2 

12.2 

49 

9 

59 

*Italian   words          7.5 

11.5 

12.5 

ZZ 

9 

67 

*  Only  2  reagents. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  I7 

Table  II.    Effect  of  training,  on  (a)  'Complete  Learning,'  and  (b)  Retention 
for  24  hours.     Number  of   Presentations  per   unit, — per 
line  for  poetry  and  prose. 


Cross-sections 

Per 

cent 

gain 

I                 2 

3 

2  over  I  3 

over 

2  3 

over 

Non-sense  syllables  (a) 

2.11            .83 

48 

61 

43 

77 

(b) 

.49            .27 

20 

45 

35 

59 

Optical  symbols 

(a) 

2,-^3          2.23 

90 

42 

60 

77 

(b) 

.68           .35 

30 

49 

14 

56 

Italian  words 

(a) 

.273          -175 

108 

36 

38 

60 

(b) 

.056          .040 

036 

29 

10 

36 

Lines  of  poetry 

(a) 

•75            -60 

47 

20 

22 

37 

(b) 

.14           .08 

07 

43 

13 

50 

Lines  of  prose 

(a) 

1.45            .82 

50 

43 

39 

66 

(b) 

.30            .10 

09 

67 

10 

70 

From  the  above  tables  we  observe  ( i )  that  the  total  improve- 
ment in  the  untrained  'special  memories'  compares  very  favora- 
bly with,  indeed  sometimes  exceeds,  the  improvement  in  memory 
for  non-sense  syllables;  (2)  that  the  gain  of  the  3d  over  the  2d 
cross-section  compares  favorably  both  with  the  gains  of  the  2d 
over  the  ist,  and  with  the  improvement  made  in  the  second  period 
of  training;  (3)  that  the  first  observation  above  is  applicable  to 
"retention  after  24  hours,"  but  that  the  second  is  less  so;  the 
improvement  in  retention  was  not  so  great  for  the  second  period 
of  training  (35%  as  against  45%),  and  segregation  of  the  scores 
shows  that  the  group  of  reagents  who  took  but  16  series  in  this 
part  of  the  training  is  more  responsible  for  the  lack  of  great 
improvement  than  is  the  group  who  took  32,  to  the  extent  of 
the  ratio  19:38  (%'s),  and  is  more  responsible  for  the  lack  of 
great  improvement  in  the  other  tests  to  the  extent  of  the  ratio 
8:11.  It  may  be  remarked,  however,  that  this  group  had  training 
equal  in  extent  to  that  of  the  other  group  before  the  2d  cross- 
section,  and  yet  in  the  test  on  the  training  material  it  showed  less 
improvement  in  retention  to  the  extent  of  the  ratio  28 153  al- 
though it  showed  equal  average  improvement  in  retention  in  the 
other  tests  (48%).  And  it  may  also  be  noted  that  this  group 
made  less  improvement  on  Non-sense  Syllables  in  the  2d  c-s,  and 


i8  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

more  than  the  other  group  in  the  3d  c-s,  while  it  equalled  the  other 
in  average  per  cent  gain  on  the  other  tests  of  both  2d  and  3d 
cross-sections.  (4)  In  connection  with  the  preceding  observation 
it  may  be  noted  that  although  great  improvement  was  shown  in 
the  wider  capacity  of  'immediate  memory'  (permitting  33%  er- 
rors— see  Table  Lb),  the  second  part  of  the  training  did  not 
contribute  much  toward  it.  (5)  Amount  of  improvement  does 
not  seem  to  depend  upon  similarity  of  the  test  to  the  training 
material;  e.g..  Numbers  in  Table  I.  and  Optical  Symbols  in 
Table  II.  were  more  dissimilar  to  the  training  material  than  any 
of  the  other  non-sense  tests,  yet  improvement  in  the  former  ex- 
ceeds and  in  the  latter  equals  that  shown  on  the  training  material ; 
and  the  gain  shown  on  lines  of  Prose,  in  Table  II.,  which  differs 
greatly  from  the  training  material  in  the  form  of  connection  be- 
tween the  units  of  the  series,  is  higher  than  that  shown  on  lines 
of  Poetry  which  in  the  respect  noted  is  more  similar  to  the  train- 
ing material. 

The  permanence  of  the  improvement  in  memorizing,  as  shown 
by  the  fourth  cross-section,^^  would  seem  to  support  the  claim 
that  it  was  not  effected  by  the  test  practice. 

Unless  we  assume  that  all  the  gain  on  the  tests,  other  than  on 
non-sense  syllables,  is  the  result  of  the  practice  effect  of  the  pre- 
ceding tests,  we  must  refer  some  of  the  gain  in  these  tests  to  the 
training  on  non-sense  syllables ;  how  much,  cannot  be  safely  esti- 
mated until  the  tests  are  repeated,  without  training,  under  the 
same  conditions.^® 

^Five  of  the  reagents  were  here  given  tests  on  non-sense  syllables,  and 
two  of  them  on  verses  of  Poetry,  after  an  interval  without  practice.  This 
interval  was  75,  85,  91,  146,  156,  days  respectively.  There  was  no  decrease 
in  efficiency;  some  of  the  reagents  showed  an  increase. 

^^  This  appears  to  have  been  done  by  Dearborn  (Psychol.  Bull.,  1909,  6:44) 
whose  results  "indicate  that  a  considerable  part  of  the  improvement  found 
must  be  attributed  to  direct  practice  in  the  test  series,  and  not  to  any  'spread' 
of  improvement  from  the  practice  series  proper."  G.  E.  Miiller  (Zeits.  f. 
Psychol.,  1905,  39:111-125),  Wessely  (Neue  Jahrb.  f.  Pad.,  1905,  8:379-380), 
Sleight  (Br.  Jr.  Psychol.,  191 1,  4:390!?),  among  others,  have  also  criticised 
the  quantitative  evidence  in  the  original  research.  A  pupil  of  Meumann's, 
however,  who  took  the  precaution  of  performing  control  experiments,  pre- 
sents, in  a  Dissertation  published  from  Zurich,  evidence  that  special  training 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  19 

The  introspective  evidence,  as  noted  above,  seems  more  con- 
clusive than  the  quantitative.  The  training  effected  ( i )  a  change 
in  the  whole  psychical  habit  of  memorizing,  which  was  applica- 
ble to  the  varied  test  material :  Distaste  for  the  exacting  work 
changed  to  zest ;  muscular  tensions  decreased  in  intensity  and  ex- 
tent ;  innervation  for  the  work  became  strong  and  constant ;  atten- 
tion became  more  economically  directed  over  the  parts  of  the 
presented  material;  concentration  became  more  constant;  etc. 
And  it  effected  (2)  a  change  in  the  method  of  memorizing :  The 
progress  in  'complete  learning'  became  methodical,  and  learning 
a  series  which  soon  after  the  beginning  of  the  training  was  carried 
on  in  the  various  successive  stages  by  definite  and  distinct  mo- 
tives, as  (a)  orientating,  (b)  apperceiving,  (c)  combining  units 
into  a  rhythm,  (d)  anticipating  syllables,  (e)  proving  memory, 
became  more  of  a  continuous  process  in  which  the  various  mo- 
tives were  economically  combined;  the  mnenonic  aids  at  first 
grasped  at  by  all  reagents  were  advantageously  discarded,  etc. 
The  experience  of  the  reagents  thus  attests  the  fact  of  the  general 
effect  of  their  special  practice,  and  reveals  in  some  manner  the 
cause  of  this  general  effect. 

Fracker^'''  makes  another  important  contribution  proving  gen- 
eral effect  of  training  when  the  materials  memorized  are  of  a 
simple  nature.  A  group  of  four  untrained  reagents  took  the  tescs 
with  the  trained  reagents,  permitting  determination  of  practice 
effect  of  the  first  test  upon  the  second,  and  the  plan  and  control 
of  the  experimentation  are  excellent. 

Eight  reagents  were  given  four  weeks'  training  (two  or  three 
days  a  week)  in  memorizing  series  of  9  sounds  made  up  of  four 
intensities.  These  were  produced  by  an  electro-magnetic  fork 
and  were  delivered  through  a  telephone.  The  four  different  in- 
tensities were  produced  by  switching  into  the  circuit  different 
resistances.    Improvement  was  made  by  all  but  one  reagent  (Fs.). 

in  memory  is  also  general  training  in  memory.      (Radossawljewitsch :    Das 
Fortschreiten  des  Vergessens  mit  der  Zeit,  1907,  S.  182). 

"  Fracker :    On  the  transfer  of  training  in  memory.    Psych.  Rev.  Mon.  Sup., 
1908,  No.  38:56-102. 


20  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

Before  and  after  the  training  the  eight  trained  and  the  four 
untrained  reagents  took  the  following  memory  tests : 

1.  Poetry  (Two  stanzas  of  "Eve  of  St.  Agnes") 

2.  Order  of   Four   Grays    (40  groups) 

3.  "  "  Nine  Tones  (20  groups) 

4.  "  "  Nine  Grays  (20  groups) 

5.  "  "  Four  Pitches  (40  groups) 

6.  "  "  Nine  Geometrical  Figures   (5  Trials) 

7.  "  "  Nine  Numbers   (10  series  of  9  double  numbers) 

8.  Extent  of  arm-movement  (10  trials  for  each  of  3  standards) 

No's  2,  3,  4,  5,  were  given  in  "double  fatigue  order"  to  equal- 
ize fatigue  and  practice  effects  upon  them. 

The  relation  of  the  tests  to  the  training  series  was  as  follows : 

No.  2  different  in  content,  same  in  method. 
No.  3  same  in  content,  different  in  method. 
All  others,  different  in  both  content  and  method. 

No.  2.  A  group  consisted  of  4  grays  (No's  2,  7,  30,  45, — 
Hering)  exposed  at  the  rate  of  one  second,  remaining  exposed 
one-half  a  second,  with  an  interval  of  4  seconds  between  the 
groups.  In  this  interval  the  reagent  responded  aloud  in  num- 
bers I  to  4,  4  being  the  darkest  gray,  reproducing  the  order  of 
the  2d  preceding  group. 

No.  3.  A  group  consisted  of  9  intensities  of  sound,  delivered 
at  the  rate  of  one  second,  each  continuing  one-half  second.  In 
a  nine-second  interval  between  groups  the  reagent  responded 
aloud  in  numbers  i  to  4,  4  being  the  loudest  sound,  reproducing 
the  order  of  the  preceding  series. 

No.  4.  Same  as  No.  2,  except  that  9  grays  were  given  in  '\ 
group.  The  reagent  responded  aloud  in  numbers,  during  a  nine- 
second  interval  between  groups,  as  in  No.  3. 

No.  5.  Same  as  No.  2  in  method,  except  as  to  the  response, 
which  was  made  by  naming  Do,  Mi,  Sol,  D0-2.  The  stimuli  were 
the  notes  of  the  major  chord  struck  upon  a  piano. 

No.  6.  The  geometric  figures  were  drawn  by  joining  three 
straight  lines  (two  long,  one  half-length)  so  that  they  joined 
only  at  the  ends  or  in  the  middle,  the  long  lines  always  adjoined, 
and  formed  right  angles,  none  crossing.    The  nine  symbols  were 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  21 

exposed  simultaneously  for  10  seconds.  The  reagent  responded 
by  drawing  the  figures,  within  a  time  limit  of  one  minute. 

No.  7.  Nine  two-place  numbers  were  read  aloud  at  the  rate 
of  one  and  one-half  seconds.  The  reagent  responded  by  record- 
ing within  the  time  limit  of  15  seconds. 

No.  8,  The  reagent,  with  eyes  closed,  moved  his  finger  with 
free  arm  movement  along  a  glass  rod  from  a  stationary  piece 
of  tubing  to  one  adjusted  by  the  experimenter;  he  moved  his  fin- 
ger out  and  back  twice ;  then  moved  it  out  to  the  position  he  esti- 
mated to  be  the  same  (the  adjustable  tube  being  removed)  ;  three 
standards  were  used. 

The  tables  show  that  of  the  8  trained  reagents  six  made  their 
greatest  gains,  and  the  others  made  large  gains,  in  No.  2,  where 
the  material  was  grays,  and  the  method  was  the  same  as  in  the 
training  on  sound ;  the  other  two  made  their  greatest  gains,  and 
three  others  made  good  gains,  in  No.  3,  in  which  the  content  was 
the  same  as  in  the  training,  but  the  method  was  different.  In 
No.  4,  four  made  large  gains.  In  No.  5,  in  which  the  method 
was  the  same  as  in  No.  2,  but  in  which  the  material  was  series 
of  pitches,  responded  to  by  name,  four  made  large  gains.  Of  the 
tests  which  differed  widest  from  the  training  in  material  and 
method,  three  made  large  gains  in  No.  6  (Geometrical  figures)  ; 
three  made  fair  gains  in  No.  7  (Nine  numbers),  and  one  in  No. 
8  (Movement).    In  No.  i  (Poetry)  four  made  fair  gains. 

By  grouping  the  tests  in  the  order  of  similarity  to  dissimilarity 
'as  compared  with  the  training,  and  averaging  the  per  cent  gain^^ 
of  the  trained  and  of  the  untrained  reagents,  we  get : 


Similar 

Dissimilar 

Tests 

234 

5 

6781 

Trained  reagents 

36%     22     19 

10 

13%  407 

Untrained  reagents 

4        II     10 

-2 

80-12 

Difference  32         11       9     12  54-15 

The  average  gain  in  training  was  21  %. 

^The  per  cents  gain  are  the  differences  between  the  scores  which  were 
expressed  in  per  cent  of  a  perfect  score;  they  are  not  reckoned  upon  initial 
efficiency. 


22  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

And  if  we  average  the  per  cent  gain  for  the  respective  re- 
agents, we  may  compare  the  (a)  test  gains  with  the  (b)  training 
gains,  and  the  (a)  gains  of  the  trained  with  the  (c)  gains  of  the 
untrained  reagents : 

Reagents  12345678  9101112 

(b)     22      25      -9      41       27      29     17     (9) 
(a)     10      15        6      IS      30      15      6      14     (c)s        8      10      13 

The  average  gain  for  the  trained  reagents  on  the  similar  tests 
was  22%,  on  the  dissimilar  6%;  for  the  untrained  reagents  6% 
and  3%,  Which  indicates  that  gain  in  the  dissimilar  tests  was 
harder  to  make;  that  there  was  greater  transfer  of  improvement 
in  the  training  to  the  similar  material  than  to  the  dissimilar  mate- 
rial, and  that  there  was  transfer  to  the  dissimilar.  The  greatest 
transference  to  the  similar  material,  however,  appears  to  have 
been  made  on  No.  2,  in  which  the  method  and  not  the  content 
was  similar  to  the  training. 

But  Fracker's  emphasis  is  rightly  placed  on  introspective  an- 
alysis rather  than  on  quantitative  results,  and  he  gives  us  a  good 
account  of  the  processes  involved  in  the  work  of  his  reagents. 

The  training  in  memorizing  the  order  of  four  intensities  of 
sound  developed  for  nearly  all  the  reagents  individual  systems 
of  visual,  visual-auditory,  or  visual-motor,  imagery,  involving 
four  steps  or  four  positions  by  which  the  sequence  of  presented 
intensities  was  remembered  as  imaged  movement  among  these 
positions.  These  systems  of  imagery  were  carried  over  to  the 
tests  involving  sequence  of  four  graded  units  (No's  2,  3,  4,  5) 
and  replaced,  for  the  trained  reagents,  the  changeable  and  tenta- 
tive methods  employed  by  all  reagents,  in  the  first  series  of  tests. 
Where  the  tests  were  more  favorable  to  the  application  of  this 
developed  imagery,  as  with  the  four  grays  (No.  2),  it  contributed 
most  effectively  to  the  increase  in  the  score ;  where  conditions  did 
not  permit  its  application  in  toto,  as  with  series  of  nine  units  be- 
fore response  (No's  3,  4)  and  with  a  series  demanding  a  different 
form  of  response  (No.  5),  there  was  interference  and  its  efficien- 
cy was  decreased.  Apparently,  the  dependence  upon  the  system 
of  imagery  where  interference  is  great,  as  in  the  changed  form  of 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  23 

response  (No.  5),  results  in  lower  scores  than  were  made  where; 
the  imagery  was  seen  not  to  apply  and  reliance  was  placed  upon 
other  and  more  general  effects  of  practice :  more  improvement 
was  shown  with  the  simultaneously  presented  geometric  symbols 
(No.  6)  than  was  made  with  the  pitches  (No.  5).  Those  other 
effects  of  training  responsible  for  improvement  here,  and  also  in 
the  tests  on  numbers  (No.  7)  and  poetry  (No.  i)  appear  from 
the  introspection  of  the  reagents  to  have  been  (a)  systematic 
grouping  of  material,  (b)  freer  use  of  imagery  in  connection  with 
this  grouping,  (c)  more  economic  distribution  of  attention,  (d) 
better  concentration  of  attention,  (e)  more  confidence  in  power 
to  master  the  situation,  etc.  Fracker  explicitly  states  three  factors 
of  improvement  in  training  and  of  transference  to  the  tests,  be- 
sides the  development  of  these  systems  of  imagery :  (a)  attention 
to  the  essentials,  (b)  association  responsible  for  building  the  sys- 
tems of  imagery,  (c)  automatic  use  of  the  imagery  where 
applicable. 

It  is  the  chief  virtue  of  this  research  that  it  has  made  clear 
the  importance  of  individual  systems  of  imagery  as  factors  in  the 
general  effect  of  special  practice  in  memorizing.  So  far,  repre- 
sentative imagery  had  not  been  given,  in  researches  connected 
with  the  theory  of  formal  discipline,  the  attention  it  merits,  al- 
though its  place  in  mental  life  is  well  known. ^^ 

The  ancients,  according  to  Cicero,  based  their  systems  of  mem- 
ory training  upon  spatial  position  or  location,  and  it  is  not  unusual 
today  for  university  students  to  fix  points  in  a  lecture  in  mind 
by  ranging  them  along  the  windows  and  doors  of  the  room. 

The  psychological  laboratory  has  revealed  the  prominence  of 
this  kind  of  imagery  in  the  mental  organization  of  not  a  few  re- 

*"  The  writer  desires  in  this  connection  to  allay  the  misapprehension  on 
the  part  of  the  author  {op.  cit.  98ff.)  that  his  results  do  not  accord  with 
those  published  by  Coover  and  Angell  (Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  1907,  18:327)  with 
respect  to  the  relation  between  imagery  and  improvement  in  practice  and 
between  imagery  and  transference  of  practice-eflfect.  Representative  imagery 
may  be  of  high  value  in  processes  of  memory  and  at  the  same  time  be  one 
of  the  chief  distractions  in  processes  of  discrimination  and  of  reaction 
with  discrimination  and  choice. 


24  '  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

agents.  As  an  example,  Miss  Gamble'**'  uses  systems  of  represen- 
tative imagery  extensively  in  memorizing  series  of  stimuli, 
whether  they  are  odors,  colors,  or  non-sense  syllables.  The  in- 
crease in  facility  in  memorizing  smells  was  due  to  a  newly  ac- 
quired system  of  associating  members  of  a  series  with  spots  on 
the  table-top,  which  she  had  previously  developed  while  working 
with  colors.  She  has  worked  in  smell  experiments  for  eleven 
years  and  learns  large  series  of  smells  with  phenomenal  facility., 
yet  she  has  no  true  smell  imagery;  her  olfactory  impressions  are 
replaced  primarily  by  color-images  suggested  by  the  materials. 
With  respect  to  the  influence  of  practice  on  associations,  she  says 
that  representative  associations  remain  but  that  auxiliary  asso- 
ciations (as,  black-pink,  being  held  by  "red  eyes  of  a  mourner"; 
or  green-yellow,  by  "green  grass  a  hunting  dog  runs  over  and 
the  corn-meal  mush  he  is  fed  on";)  drop  away. 

Sleight^^  has  recently  made  a  substantial  contribution  to  the 
question  of  transference  of  improvement  in  memory.  He  takes 
his  departure  from  a  criticism  of  the  work  of  Ebertand  Meumann, 
Fracker,  and  Winch.  His  objections  to  the  first  are  ( i )  too  few 
reagents  for  statistical  treatment  of  results,  (2)  no  control  serie;- 
to  determine  the  practice-effect  of  the  tests  themselves,  (3)  no  evi- 
dence that  the  tests  in  the  various  cross-sections  were  of  equal 
difficulty,  (4)  inadequacy  of  the  per  cent  form  of  statement  of 
results,  for  one  reason  because  per  cents  are  not  equivalent  when 
they  are  not  reckoned  upon  equivalent  stages  of  practice.  His 
objections  to  the  second  are  confined  to  the  first  of  the  four  just 
quoted.  These  criticisms  will  receive  some  attention  in  theoretical 
discussion  later. 

His  first  series  of  experiments  were  performed  with  children 
of  three  girls'  schools,  numbering  21,  28,  35,  respectively  (aver- 
age age,  12  yrs.  8  mo.). 

Ten  different  kinds  of  tests  were  given  to  ascertain  the  mem- 
orizing power  of  each  child;  these  constitute  the  first  'cross-sec- 
tion,' upon  the  combined  results  of  which  the  children  of  each 

*"  Gamble :     Study  in  memorizing  various  materials  by  the   reconstruction 
method.    Psych.  Rev.  Mon.  Sup.,  1909,  No.  43:1. 
"Sleight:  Memory  and  Formal  training.  Br.  Jr.  Psych.,  19TI,  4:386. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  25 

school  were  arranged  in  order  of  merit  and  divided  into  four 
approximately  equal  sections  of  equal  merit ;  one  group  was  prac- 
ticed on  learning  poetry  by  heart,  one  on  tables,  one  on  prose 
substance,  and  one  had  no  practice  but  spent  the  time  on  arithme- 
tical problems  or  some  other  task  not  involving  memory  work. 
The  practice  period  lasted  six  weeks,  four  days  a  week,  30  minutes 
a  day.  A  second  cross-section  of  tests  was  taken  in  mid-practice, 
a  third  at  the  close,  and  a  fourth  after  six  months. 

In  practice  ( i )  the  poetry  group  repeated  line  by  line  after  the 
experimenter  until  the  average  child  could  repeat  the  whole  with- 
out help.  Meter  and  lines  varied.  (  2  )  The  group  on  tables  learned 
multiplication,  denominations,  squares,  fractions,  etc.  (3) 
The  substance-prose  group  heard  read  twice  selections  from  scien- 
tific, geographical,  historical,  narrative  material,  and  reproduced 
the  substance  of  the  narratives. 

The  ten  tests  were  intended  to  appear  to  develop  out  of  ordin- 
ary school  work  and  were  representative  of  many  different  pro- 
cesses regularly  involved  in  memory  work;  they  included  verbal 
and  logical  associations,  in  couplets  and  continuous,  of  letters 
syllables,  and  names;  spatial  associations  with  one  presentation 
and  with  several. 

Averages  were  tabulated ;  and  the  differences  between  the  aver- 
ages of  cross-sections  one  and  two,  two  and  three,  and  one  and 
three,  for  each  group  of  children  for  each  test,  were  divided  by 
the  average  of  the  test  standard  deviations  of  the  three  respective 
schools.  A  table  of  significant  values  was  formed  by  subtracting 
the  difference-score  of  the  unpracticed  group  from  the  difference- 
scores  of  the  three  practiced  groups,  in  each  test  for  the  three 
test-comparisons.  Where  these  values  (the  difference  between 
the  difference-scores  of  the  practiced  and  unpracticed  children) 
were  over  three  times  as  large  as  the  probable  errors,  they  were 
accepted  as  significant.  Since  we  are  limited  to  a  consideration 
of  the  'significant'  values,  of  which  there  are  a  few,  it  is  interest- 
ing to  note  that  ( i )  the  group  trained  on  poetry  showed  transfer 
effect  to  non-sense  syllables  and  the  map  test  having  lost  in  the 
test  on  poetry   by  an   insignificant   amount.      (2)    The  group 


26  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

trained  on  tables  showed  transference  to  points  (spatial  memory) 
and  to  non-sense  syllables,  having  lost  on  dates  by  an  insignificant 
amount.  (3)  The  group  practiced  on  prose-substance  showed 
transference  to  prose-substance  and  to  names.  (4)  Of  the  three 
trained  groups  only  one  shows  transference  to  the  test  most 
similar  in  material  (Prose-substance)  to  their  training.  (5)  If 
the  indications  of  transference  are  limited  to  those  values  which 
"present  really  strong  evidence"  (five  times  their  probable 
error),  but  three  cases  remain:  Prose-substance  to  prose-sub- 
stance, poetry  to  non-sense  syllables,  and  tables  to  non-sense 
syllables,  in  the  order  named,  the  last  being  the  greatest.  (6) 
The  only  negative  transference  occurred  from  tables  to  dates, 
in  which  arbitrary  'paired'  associations  were  common,  but  in 
the  latter  the  sequence  of  the  pairs  was  disturbed. 

The  following  causes  of  transference  were  conjectured:  (i) 
From  poetry  to  non-sense  syllables,  the  common  element  of 
rhythm;  (2)  from  tables  to  non-sense  syllables,  rhythm  and 
arbitraiy  associations;  from  tables  to  points  (spatial  memory), 
visual  imagery;  (3)  from  prose-substance  to  prose-substance, 
identical  material. 

Since  the  results  of  this  experimental  series  with  children 
were  of  an  unexpected  nature  and  their  interpretation  had  to 
rest  wholly  upon  statistical  analysis,  another  series  was  carried 
out  in  order  that  they  might  be  confirmed  or  contradicted  by 
the  new  results  and  introspective  analysis. 

The  second  series  of  experiments  were  conducted  upon  two 
classes  of  3^oung  women  (average  age.  18-19  years),  first-year 
students,  in  the  Training  College  (London). 

The  method  and  tests  were  approximately  the  same  as  in  the 
first  series,  except  that  but  six  tests  constituted  a  cross-section. 
The  training  of  three  groups  of  poetry,  tables,  and  prose-sub- 
stance respectively,  continued  twelve  consecutive  days  (a  Sunday 
excepted),  30  minutes  daily,  and  differed  from  the  training  of  the 
children  in  that  poetry  and  tables  were  learned  from  manuscript 
instead  of  from  oral  repetition.  The  statistical  treatment  of  the 
results  yields  six  'significant'  values,  and  two  of  these  are  nega- 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  27 

tive :     ( I )  The  group  practiced  on  poetry  showed  transference  to 
nonsense  syllables  and  to  poetry ;  (2)  the  group  practiced  on  tables 
showed  transference  to  dates;  (3)  the  group  practiced  on  prose- 
substance  showed  transference  to  prose-substance,  and  negative 
transference  (interference)  to  non-sense  syllables  and  consonants. 
Causes  for  transference,  based  largely  upon  introspective  an- 
alysis, were  presumed  to  be :  ( i )  From  poetry  to  poetry,  identical 
material    and    rhythm;    from    poetry    to    non-sense    syllables, 
rhythm;    (2)  from  tables  to  dates,  visualization;  (3)  from  prose- 
substance,  to  prose-substance,  identical  material;  negative  trans- 
ference to  non-sense   syllables  and  to  consonants,   repugnance 
for  mechanical  learning  after  training  on  easier  logical  material. 
This  second  series  seems  to  be  quite  independent  of  the  first, 
the  significant  values  of  the  respective  tables  of  general  results 
agreeing  in  but  one  case.     The  introspections  of  the  adults  throw 
no  light  upon  the  results  from  the  children,  and  fail,  in  their 
naivete,  to  furnish  satisfactory  explanations  for  their  own  re- 
sults ;  they  are  not  to  be  considered  comparable  to  the  introspec- 
tions of  the  reagents  of  Ebert  and  Meumann,  and  of  Fracker. 
The  results  of  both  series  must  stand  on  statistical  analysis  alone. 
In  his  analysis  of  results.  Sleight  finds  Thorndike's  early  law 
of  'Identical  elements'  too  simple.     Cases  of  transference  shown 
in  the  above  paragraphs  do  not  follow  it:     (a)  The  group  prac- 
ticed on  tables  did  not  show  improvement,  but  loss,  in  their  3d 
test  on  dates ;  due  to  the  fact  that  in  the  tests  they  were  told  the 
number  of  repetitions  that  would  be  given,  whereas  in  the  training 
they  were  not,  which  resulted  in  a  change  in  the  direction  of 
the  attention;  and  (b)  the  group  trained  in  poetry  lost  in  their 
third   test   on   poetry,   probably   for  the   same   reason.     Trans- 
ference to  the  tests  more  remotely  related  to  the  training  material 
was  occasionally  large;  the  greatest  transference  being  to  tests 
on  non-sense  syllables  from  training  on  poetry,  and  on  tables. 
"The  relation  which  produced  transference  is  not  necessarily  (a) 
an   external   relation   perceivable   by   an   observer,   nor    (b)    a 
relation  perceivable  by  the  learner;  but  (c)  a  common  factor,  of 
which  the   individual  mind  makes  use,   consciously  or  uncon- 


28  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

sciously.  The  individual's  awareness  of  the  usable  common 
element  may  produce  an  earlier  and  greater  effect."  The  com- 
mon element  "must  be  separable  from  the  complexes"  in  which 
it  occurs.  This  disintegration  resists  transference.  "The  fac- 
tors which  make  for  transference  are  similarities  of  a  funda- 
mental nature,  such  as  specific  forms  of  attention,  imagery, 
rhythm;  in  short,  similarities  of  procedure;"^-  changes  in  these 
affect  transference  more  than  changes  in  material. 

The  general  conclusion  to  which  the  author  is  led  is  that 
"Specific  memory  training  is  specific  in  its  effects."^^ 

It  appears  to  the  writer  that  there  are  apparent  reasons  which 
mitigate  this  conclusion:  (i)  The  unpracticed  group  was  not 
unpracticed,  since  these  tests  involved  processes  largely  exercised 
in  the  ordinary  work  of  school.  This  influence  tends  to  erase 
the  difference  between  the  practiced  and  the  unpracticed  groups. 
(2)  There  is  sufficient  indication  by  significant  positive  and 
negative  values,  of  relationship  of  processes  to  count  against 
merely  specific  effect  of  practice.  (3)  The  assumption  that 
"the  mental  processes  have  probably  been  independent"  when 
the  influence  of  the  training  is  not  revealed  by  "significant"  dif- 
ference-scores, is  opposed  to  the  general  introspective  evidence 
of  other  investigators.  (4)  The  criticism  of  irregularity  of 
results,  applied  to  Winch  by  the  experimenter,  seems  applicable 
here,  since,  as  was  noticed  above,  the  two  tables  agree  in  but  one 
entry. 

Miss  Gamble  **  in  the  course  of  memory  investigation  with 
odors,  colors,  and  non-sense  syllables,  found  a  great  increase  in 
facility  in  memorizing  smells  after  practice  in  memorizing  colors 
with  which  she  developed  a  spatial  system  of  representative 
imagery.  The  new  system  was  carried  over.  And  "The  results 
of  G.  seemed  to  show  that  practice  gained  in  the  earlier  ex- 
periments with  smells  and  colors  was  transfered  to  the  learning 
of  non-sense  syllables." 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  29 

Rail  ^'^  tested  two  groups  of  students,  upon  each  of  three 
days,  in  memorizing  poetry  (Evangeline)  and  in  memorizing 
non-sense  syllables.  One  group  (44)  trained  on  memorizing 
for  four  weeks,  20  minutes  a  day,  individuals  choosing  various 
material,  such  as  poetry,  prose  in  English  and  in  foreign  lan- 
guages, irregular  verbs  and  vocabularies  in  foreign  languages. 
Improvement  in  training  was  measured  by  comparing  the  last 
three  with  the  first  three  days.  The  second  group  of  28  took  no 
training. 

Results  showed  wide  variations:  Of  the  44  trained  reagents. 
4  lost  in  the  training  and  one  lost  in  the  Evangeline  tests ;  6  out 
of  34  lost  on  the  non-sense  syllables.  Of  the  untrained  group. 
4  out  of  28  lost  on  Evangeline,  3  out  of  16  lost  on  non- 
sense syllables.  In  the  training  22  improved  more,  20  less,  than 
in  the  Evangeline  test,  and  2  improved  the  same  amount ;  23  out 
of  34  improved  more  (or  lost  less)  and  11  improved  less  in  the 
training  than  on  the  non-sense  syllables.  The  following  table 
gives  the  average  improvement  in  per  cent : 

No.  Training         Evangeline     Non-sense 

Syllables 
Trained  25  32.5  26.9  24.5 

Untrained  20  17.8  12.0 

Difference  9.1  12.5 

In  this  experiment,  then,  25  students  gained  in  training 
32.5%,  of  which  28%  was  transferred  to  the  poetry  test,  and 
38%  to  the  test  on  non-sense  syllables. 

A  second  investigation  was  made  which  agreed  with  the  first  in 
showing  the  general  effect  of  special  practice,  but  the  amount 
of  the  transference  was  smaller. 

Radossawljewitsch^^  in  conducting  experimentation  directed 
by  Meumann  found  that  special  practice  in  memorizing  improves 
memory  in  general. 

**  Rail :  Some  experimental  evidence  on  the  transfer  of  training  in  mem- 
ory.    Psych.  Bull.,  1912,  9:88. 

*°  Radossawljewitsch :  Das  Behalten  und  Vergessen  bei  Kindern  und  Er- 
wachsenen  nach  experimentellen  Untersuchungen.  Pad.  Mon.  Von  Meumann. 
1907. 


30  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

Miss  Talbot  "^^  in  training  her  visual  memory,  not  in  power 
but  in  frequency  of  use,  found  general  effect  in  its  making 
memory  more  sure. 

7.    Voluntary  Control 

Book  **  found,  in  his  investigation  of  learning  typewriting, 
that  in  learning  to  'short-circuit'  to  a  higher  order  of  habits, 
besides  habits  of  manipulation,  there  were  involved  'habits  of 
control.'  These  with  other  mental  habits  "when  developed  in  the 
sight  method  of  learning,  were  carried  over  to  the  touch  method 
of  learning  and  were  used  to  good  effect." 

Judd  and  Cowling  ^^  report  that  improvement  in  drawing  an 
imaged  form  with  the  eyes  open  was  transferred  to  efficiency  in 
drawing  with  the  eyes  closed. 

Wallin  ^^  trained  two  observers  in  nonocular  control  of  re- 
versions in  a  number  of  reversible  perspective  outlines,  such  as 
a  book  or  a  pyramid.  "Practice  consisted  in  the  attempt  to 
uniformly  envisage  the  infrequent  or  non-predominant  perspec- 
tive." Improvement  in  9246  trials,  expressed  in  per  cent  of  suc- 
cessful control,  amounted  to  an  average  of  42%  between  the 
averages  of  the  first  and  last  20  days  (40%  and  82%).  Tests 
showed  that  the  improvement  was  shared  by  the  unpracticed  eye. 
"The  effects  of  practice  are  central;  the  training  of  the  one  eye 
established  certain  cortical  tendencies  and  mental  attitudes.  The 
unused  retina  therefore  tended  to  respond  in  harmony  with  the 
central  disposition."  Also,  earlier  in  the  experiment,  reversions 
occurred  about  two  and  one-half  times  faster  in  direct  vision  than 
in  peripheral  vision;  after  practice,  reversion  occasionally  occur- 
red most  readily  when  the  figure  was  in  peripheral  vision;  there 
was  "transference  of  fixation  motives  attaching  to  the  fovea  to 
the  peripheral  retina.  .  .  .  The  foveal  tendency  was  transmuted 
into  a  'generalized  retinal  habit.'  " 

*^Talbott:  Attempt  to  train  the  visual  memory.    Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  1897,  8:414. 

**  Book :  Psychology  of  Skill  with  special  reference  to  its  acquisition  in 
Typewriting.     Univ.  Mont.  Bull.,  1908,  53  75. 

*'  Judd  and  Cowling :  Studies  in  perceptual  development.  Psych.  Rev. 
Mon.,  1907,  No.  34:349. 

■^Wallin:  Doctrine  of  formal  discipline:  Two  neglected  instances  of 
transfer  of  training.    Jr.  Ed.  Psych.,  1910,  1:168. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  31 

8.  Summary 

The  following  summary  gives  briefly  the  results  of  the  psycho- 
logical investigations,  coming  before  the  notice  of  the  v^^riter, 
and  reviewed  in  the  preceding  pages,  which  have  a  direct  or  in- 
direct bearing  upon  the  question  of  functional  relationship  be- 
tween various  mental  processes : 

(i)  Improvement  in  habituation  to  distraction  is  general 
(Vogt)  ;  (2)  sensitivity  of  one  sense  is  increased  when  impres- 
sions from  another  are  simultaneously  received  (Uibantschitsch, 
Epstein)  ;  (3)  reaction-time  to  one  of  two  simultaneous  stimuli 
is  different  from  the  time  to  either  alone,  being  shorter  to  a  visual 
stimulus  when  a  sound  stimulus  is  also  given  than  to  a  visual 
stimulus  alone,  and  longer  to  a  sound  stimulus  when  both  are 
given  than  to  a  sound  stimulus  alone  (Dunlap  and  Wells) ;  (4) 
increase  in  sensible  discrimination  of  two  points  is  shared  by 
surrounding  areas  (Volkmann)  ;  (5)  improvement  in  discrim- 
ination of  shades  of  blue  (for  school  children)  was  transferred 
to  facility  in  discrimination  of  shades  of  other  colors,  and  of 
pitch  (Bennett)  ;  (6)  improvement  in  estimating  areas,  weights, 
and  lengths,  was  transferred  to  capacity  to  estimate  areas, 
weights,  and  lengths,  different  from  those  used  in  the  training 
(Thorndike  and  Woodworth) ;  (7)  time  of  simple  reaction,  and 
time  of  reaction  with  discrimination,  to  light,  electrical,  and 
tactual,  stimuli,  were  reduced  through  training  on  simple  reaction 
or  reaction  with  discrimination,  to  sound  stimuli  (Gilbert  and 
Fracker)  ;  (8)  reaction  time  to  visual  stimuli  was  lowered  by  pre- 
vious practice  in  reaction  to  sound  stimuli  (Angell  and  Moore)  ; 
(9)  improvement  in  marking  out  words  containing  each  of  two 
given  letters,  on  pages  similar  to  and  different  from  those  used 
in  training,  and  in  marking  out  capital  A's  from  a  sheet  contain- 
ing 500  capitals,  resulted  from  training  in  marked  out  words 
containing  the  letters  e  and  ^  (Thorndike  and  Woodworth)  ;  (10) 
there  was  transfer  of  practice-effect  in  sorting  cards,  from  one 
set  of  colors  to  another  set  of  colors,  and  to  geometric  forms, 
and  from  one  set  of  geometric  forms  to  another,  and  to  the 
colors  (Liddle)  ;  (11)  functional  relationship  and  interdepend- 
ence of  mental  processes  are  shown  by  the  phenomena  of  inter- 


32  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

ference:  (a)  simultaneous  processes  may  interfere  with  each 
other  or  augment  one  of  them  (Jastrow  and  Cairnes) ;  (b)  sort- 
ing a  pack  of  cards  in  re-arranged  compartments  immediately 
after  sorting  another,  takes  longer  time,  and  in  learning  rows 
of  non-sense  syllables  successively,  the  time  becomes  progressively 
longer  if  they  possess  recurring  elements  (Bergstrom)  ;  (c)  fre- 
quent changes  in  typewriter-reaction,  however,  result  in  capacity 
to  make  new  and  antagonistic  series  of  reaction  in  less  time,  and 
practice  in  repeating  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  with  the  interpola- 
tion of  a  given  letter  between  each  two,  increases  capacity  to  repeat 
the  same  series  with  the  interpolation  of  a  different  letter  (Bair)  ; 
(d)  and  there  is  less  interference  between  complex  than  between 
simple  processes  (McMein  and  Washburn);  (12)  training  in 
memorizing  poetry  improved  memory  for  digits  and  for  names 
of  places  (Bennett);  (13)  memorizing  non-sense  syllables  im- 
proved memory  for  letters,  numbers,  words,  meaningless  sylla- 
bles, Italian  words,  verses  of  poetry,  lines  of  philosophic  prose, 
and  optical  symbols  (Ebert  and  Meumann)  ;  (14)  memorizing 
series  of  sounds  improved  memory  for  series  of  grays,  tones, 
pitches,  a  square  of  geometrical  figures,  and  verses  of  poetry 
(Fracker)  ;  (15)  training  of  memory  (for  children  and  students) 
upon  matter  similar  to  schoolwork,  resulted  in  a  few  significant 
gains  in  memory  for  material  similar  to,  and  different  from, 
that  used  in  the  training,  and  deteriorated  memory  for  some 
similar  material  (Sleight)  ;  (16)  memorizing  colors  gave  greater 
facility  in  memorizing  odors,  and  practice  gained  in  memorizing 
odors  and  colors  was  transferred  to  memorizing  non-sense  sylla- 
bles (Gamble)  ;  ( 17)  memorizing  poetry  or  prose  in  English  or  in 
a  foreign  language,  or  irregular  verbs  or  vocabularies,  improved 
memory  for  poetry  and  for  non-sense  syllables  (Rail);  (18) 
improvement  in  voluntary  control  was  carried  over  from  sight 
to  touch  typewriting  (Book),  from  drawing  with  the  eyes  open 
to  drawing  with  the  eyes  closed  (Judd  and  Cowling),  from  use 
in  connection  with  one  eye  to  use  with  the  other,  and  from  the 
foveal  to  the  peripheral  vision  (Wallin). 

An  examination  of  the  data  reveals  the  fact  that  special  prac- 
tice is  not  wholly  general  in  its  effects;  is  often  not  largely  gen- 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  33 

eral,  but  probably  is  always  somewhat  general.  Under  the 
conditions  of  the  experiments  it  usually  ranges  in  amount  from  a 
fourth  to  three-fourths  of  the  gain  shown  in  the  training.^ ^ 

Of  greater  importance  than  the  fact  of  the  general  effect  of 
'specific  training'  however,  is  the  theory  that  will  account  for 
all  the  facts  that  have  come  to  notice  through  the  course  of  inves- 
tigation and  that  point  to  the  relationship  of  all  mental  processes, 
but  to  a  relationship  that  is  by  no  means  a  simple  one.  Progress 
toward  such  a  theory  is  made  by  the  discussions  of  investigators, 
quoted  above,  who  have  subjected  their  numerical  and  introspec- 
tive results  to  a  more  or  less  thorough  analysis.  But  since  there  is, 
on  the  surface  at  least,  some  conflicting  evidence,  further  work 
is  necessary  to  unravel  the  tangled  skein  of  positive  and  negative 
relationships,  and  to  account  for  some  apparently  anomalous  re- 
sults^- which  occasionally  occur. 

"  It  is  interesting  and  perhaps  significant  that  the  distinction  between  gen- 
eral and  special  effects  of  practice  is  so  generally  recognized  by  the  Danes 
that  their  language  provides  separate  terms  for  them  (Faerdighed,  general; 
Udenadlaeren,  special),  vid.  Meumann :  Beitrage  zur  Psychologic  des  Zeit- 
sinns.     Phil.  Stud.,  1893,  8:435. 

'"Of  which  further  notice  is  taken  on  pp.  64ff. 


PART  11 
EXPERIMENTAL 


I.  PRINCIPALLY  QUANTITATIVE 


The  following  four  experiments  (performed  1903-5)  took 
their  departure  from  the  work  of  Thorndike  and  Woodworth.^ 
The  amount  of  transference  was  still  in  question,  and  the  theory 
was  still  that  of  "identical  elements"  of  a  relatively  simple  nature, 
largely  motor.  Although  the  principal  contribution  is  quantita- 
tive, the  analysis  of  processes  is  not  neglected — all  experiments 
were  accompanied  by  introspections. 

1.  Experiments  on  the  More  Complex  Processes 


In  order  that  we  could  start  on  an  even  footing  with  the  inves- 
tigation referred  to,  it  was  necessary  to  repeat  some  of  the  experi- 
ments; the  following  two  were  chosen:  a.  Marking  out  words 
containing  two  given  letters,  and  b.  Estimating  weights. 

a.  Marking  Out  Words 

Two  reagents  were  trained  for  1 1  days  in  marking  out  words 
containing  e  and  s  in  selected  columns  of  the  "Outlook"  Maga- 
zine. Each  reagent  looked  over  12,000  words  in  each  day's 
practice. 

Tests  were  taken  before  and  after  training,  in  marking  out 

( 1 )  Words  in  "Outlook"  columns  containing  e-s,  i-t,  s-p,  c-a, 
e-r. 

(2)  Words  on  manuscript  pages  containing  a-n,  l-o,  e-r. 

(3)  Common  nouns  in  "Outlook"  columns. 

(4)  Words  in  "Outlook"  columns  containing  e-s. 

The  manuscript  pages  were  prepared  with  a  script  'type-wheel' 

*  op.  cit. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  35 

on  a  Blickensderfer  typewriter  and  were  typed  in  purple 
ink.  They  differed  from  the  printed  columns  in  (a)  length  of 
line;  (b)  color,  (c)  size,  (d)  form  of  letters;  (e)  letter-spacing; 
(f)  line  spacing.  This  provision  was  made  in  order  that  we 
might  determine  if  marking  out  words  consisted  simply  of  re- 
actions to  visual  symbols.  If  so,  then  training  the  e-s  function  on 
printed  matter  would  show  much  less  effect  upon  the  functions 
employed  on  the  manuscript  pages  than  on  the  printed  columns. 
And  if  improvement  in  the  trained  function  consisted  to  an  ap- 
preciable degree  in  eye-movements  or  other  habituation  to  the 
printed  material,  there  would  also  be  less  improvement  carried 
over  to  the  functions  employed  on  the  manuscript  pages. 

The  results  in  time  and  accuracy  are  given  in  Table  I  (Appen- 
dix A,  p.  259)  and  also  in  per  cents  in  Table  II  (p.  260).  From 
Table  I  are  drawn  the  two  curves  on  Plates  I  and  II  (p.  261) 
which  show  in  absolute  amounts  the  acquired  efficiency  (in 
speed)  in  the  e-s  function,  and  the  amount  efficiency  in  the  other 
functions  was  increased  thereby,  for  the  two  reagents. 

From  Table  II  are  drawn  the  curves  on  Plates  III  and  IV 
(p.  261)  which  show  the  per  cent  of  acquired  efficiency  in  the 
trained  e-s  function  and  the  per  cent  of  improvement  made  in 
the  tested  abilities  of  other  functions. 

Plate  VII  (p.  262)  shows  the  course  of  efficiency  with  e-s 
words  during  training. 

Calculating  gain  by  finding  the  complement  of  the  per  cent  of 
time,  the  two  reagents  gained  in  the  training  series  57%  and 
31%,  in  the  test  series  on  "Outlook"  columns  50%  and  20%, 
on  the  manuscript  pages  30%  and  30%  ;  on  nouns  14%  and 
6%,  and  on  all  42%  and  24%.  The  special  practice  shows  gen- 
eral effect,  therefore,  to  the  extent  of  74%  and  77%.  That  the 
improvement  in  the  final  tests  is  not  due  to  the  practice-effect 
of  the  first  tests  may  be  learned  from  Table  I,  in  which  are 
shown  the  results  on  e-s  words  with  which  the  first  test  began 
and  ended;  For  Gs.  this  effect  was  12%  ,  for  Cr.,  -3%. 

The  accuracy  is  quite  uniform  for  the  tests,  although  in  the 
training  considerable  improvement  was  made.  (Table  II,  Plates 
V  and  VI,  pp.  260,  262.) 


2,6  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

Our  results  in  comparison  with  those  of  Thorndike  and  Wood- 
worth  are  given  in  the  following  table.  They  show  about  the 
same  improvement  in  training,  but  more  general  practice-effect 
75%  instead  of  49%. 


Table  Comparing  Data 

P( 

ir  cent  Improvement 

Extent 

In 

In 

Tests 

of  general 

Reagents 

Training 

On  Simila 

r    On 

Dissimilar 

Practice-ef- 

Data 

Data 

Avg. 

fect  in  % 

Thorndike 

Ber. 

19 

12.5 

4 

10 

53 

and  Wood- 

Br. 

51 

21 

35 

19 

27 

worth's 

Be. 

37-5 

16.S 

30.3 

21 

57 

Reagents 

Wh. 

44 

5 

25 

10 

23 

EMT, 

.    36 

24 

33 

25 

69 

Our 

Gs. 

57 

50 

30 

42 

74 

Reagents 

Cr. 

31 

20 

30 

24 

77 

(The  per  cents  are  reckoned  on  the  time  of  the  first  tests;  in 
last  column,  on  the  amount  of  improvement  in  the  training.) 

The  table  shows  more  improvement  in  tests  on  the  dissimilar 
data  than  on  the  similar  data,  by  4  reagents  in  Thorndike  and 
Woodworth's  experiment,  and  by  one  in  ours. 

(i)  Conclusion 

Our  results  seem  to  indicate  that  habituation  to  the  training 
data  was  not  a  great  factor  in  transference  of  the  practice-effect. 
Some  slight  improvement  may  have  been  due  to  habituation  of 
eye-movement  and  eye-adjustment  to  the  word-hunting  process, 
to  facility  in  pen-manipulation  and  to  the  dropping  away  of 
gross  motor  accompaniments  of  mental  effort.^  A  little  may  have 
been  due  to  learning  a  method  of  looking  for  words ;  as,  keeping 
more  prominent  in  mind  an  image  of  the  least  frequent  letter 
and  using  it  as  a  cue.  But  the  transferred  improvement  seemed 
principally  due  to  reducing  the  recognition  of  a  word  as  contain- 
ing given  letters  to  its  essential  process.  Introspections  note  the 
ease  and  automatism  of  the  process  in  the  after-training  tests : 

^  Lindley  (Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  7:49iff)  finds  a  considerable  list  and  points  out 
that  some  of  them  are  detrimental. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  37 

Cr.  remarked,  after  test  on  c-a,  "seemed  almost  as  easy  as  e-s, 
though  the  words  as  recognized  were  not  of  that  famihar  cast 
which  some  c-s  words  had  acquired."  Gs.  remarked,  after  test 
on  e-r,  "Seemed  to  me  as  if  I  were  marking  almost  as  mechani- 
cally as  I  had  done  the  e-s.''  Gs.  remarked,  after  test  on  a-n 
words  in  manuscript,  "marked  with  great  facility  of  recognition 
and  very  mechanically."  The  process  of  recognizing  words  as 
containing  given  letters  had  been  relieved  of  the  unnecessary  and 
retarding  accompaniments  (kinaesthetic,  motor,  and  acoustic 
images)  noticed  in  the  introspections  of  the  first  tests  and  in  the 
early  training. 

These  retarding  accompaniments  consisted  in  (a)  repeating 
over  and  over  again,  in  inner  speech,  the  names  of  one  or  both  of 
the  letters  sought,  or  their  sounds^;  and  in  (b)  repeating  the 
separate  words,  or  actually  reading  the  text,  in  order  to  determine 
whether  the  words  contained  the  sounds  which  were  held  in  mind 
as  auditory  images.  Even  when  the  method  was  adopted  to 
recognize  by  visual  images,  these  were  strongly  supported  by 
kinaesthetic-auditory  imagery;  which  indicated  that  the  most 
difficult  feature  of  the  exercise  lay  in  recognizing  words  as  con- 
taining the  critical  letters. 

Training  reduced  this  process  to  an  almost  automatic  visual- 
motor  act,  and  greatly  reduced  the  time  of  a  given  performance. 
There  was  no  kinaesthetic  or  auditory  tendency  in  the  process,  in 
the  final  tests,  except  where  the  process  was  felt  to  be  specially 
difficult  (Gs.  could  scarcely  distinguish  the  as  from  the  o's  in 
the  manuscript,  and  consequently  had  a  tendency  to  pronounce  the 
sound  of  a  at  times;  Cr.  had  some  difficulty  in  recognizing  i-t 
in  the  printed  columns).  This  chief  factor  of  improvement  in 
the  training  is  identical  with  the  factor  of  improvement  in  the 
tests. 

The  processes  for  both  reagents,  in  the  different  experiments 
in  the  first  test,  were  various:  (i)  reading,  (2)  kinaesthetic- 
auditory  cue  of  letter-names,   (3)   of  letter-sounds,   (4)   visual 

'  Secor  (Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  11:236)  found  auditory  and  articulatory  factors 
to  be  aids,  especially  with  difficult  material,  but  not  necessary  elements  in 
visual  reading. 


38  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

image  cue  of  letter  forms,  (5)  imagery  of  the  one  letter  only 
as  the  cue,  (6)  lines,  or  words  as  units  for  search,  (7)  mechani- 
cally searching  for  projections  of  letters,  etc.,  sometimes  varying 
within  the  single  experiment,  but  usually  playing  the  dominant 
role  throughout  an  experiment. 

In  the  final  tests  the  process  was  almost  uniform,  for  each 
reagent,  throughout  the  different  experiments.  That  this  change 
was  not  merely  a  change  in  method,  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that 
it  took  five  days  of  training  (12,000  words  per  day)  to  get  rid  of 
the  retarding  accompaniments  of  the  recognition  process.  (See 
practice  curve  in  Plate  VII,  p.  262.) 

Some  special  factors  were  noticed  in  the  training  which  would 
not  contribute  to  general  effect:  certain  common  words  often 
recurring  were  reacted  to  by  the  word-marking  impulse  without 
engaging  the  word-inspecting  process ;  and  the  familiarity  of  the 
images  of  the  capital  forms  of  the  letters  rendered  capitalized 
words  easily  recognizable. 

In  the  first  test  Gs.,  in  marking  out  s-p  words,  took  p  for  the 
cue  and  ran  his  eye  along  under  the  line  for  the  projecting  stem; 
and  l-o  words  in  the  manuscript,  above  the  line  for  the  loop  of 
the  /.  In  the  final  tests,  although  p  and  /  were  the  visual  cues, 
respectively,  the  words  were  searched  for  the  complete  letters. 
(This  accounts  for  the  smaller  gain  on  s-p  and  l-o  words  as  shown 
by  the  tables  and  charts,  in  the  Appendix  A,  pp.  259ff.)  Cr, 
used  the  same  trick  with  s-p  words  in  the  first  test,  but  not  in  the 
final,  which  yielded  him  also  a  very  small  score — about  half  of 
the  score  for  the  e-r  words. 

The  observation  that  marking  out  words  containing  different 
pairs  of  letters  engages  essentially  different  processes  cannot  be 
taken  as  a  criticism  of  the  claim  that  the  main  factor  of  improve- 
ment is  also  a  factor  of  transference.  Marking  e-s  words  is  not  a 
simple  but  a  various  process,  even  with  a  single  reagent.  It  does 
not  only  change  as  a  result  of  training,  but  at  any  one  sitting  it 
varies  with  words  of  different  length  and  of  different  distribution 
of  the  critical  letters.  These  variations  may  be  so  regular  as  to 
show  in  a  large  amount  of  marking  (by  a  given  reagent),  various 
constant  errors.     E.g.,  Gs.,  in  his  training  on  e-s  words,  omit- 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  39 

ted  a  much  greater  proportion  of  6-letter  words  than  any  others, 
and  of  words  in  which  e  and  ^  were  separated  by  three  or  four 
letters  than  any  others,  of  words  also  containing  x  than  of  those 
also  containing  ch,  €,  g,  or  z.  Cr.,  in  his  training  on  e-s  words, 
omitted  a  much  greater  proportion  of  4-letter  words  than  any 
others ;  of  words  in  which  e  and  s  were  separated  by  four  letters 
than  any  others ;  of  words  also  containing  z  than  also  containmg 
ch,  €,  q,  or  X.  Gs.  recognized  e-s  words  principally  through  kin- 
aesthetic  or  sound  image  of  s,  x  was  his  great  distraction,  and 
half  the  words  he  marked  in  error  contained  €  interpreted  as  q. 
Cr.  recognized  e-s  words  principally  through  their  visual  images, 
using  .y  as  a  cue,  and  z  was  his  great  distraction. 

Although  the  process  varies  not  only  with  various  words  and 
with  various  reagents,  general  effect  of  the  special  practice  is 
shown  quantitatively  by  the  tables  and  qualitatively  by  the  intro- 
spections, to  be  the  rule  for  both  similar  and  dissimilar  data. 
And  we  take  the  principal  factor  of  improvement  to  be  essentially 
general  in  nature. 

b.  Estimating  Weights 

Two  reagents  were  trained  for  14  days  on  a  set  of  17  Chicago 
suggestion  blocks  ranging  from  40-120  grams,  all  similar  except 
in  weight.  Each  reagent  took  100  series,  making  1700  judg- 
ments. (See  Tables  V  and  VI  for  data  of  the  first  and  last  series, 
pp.  263-4.) 

Tests  were  taken  before  and  after  training  on  estimating  (a) 
Ten  common  objects,  averaging  67.5  grams  in  weight,  and  all 
falling  within  the  40-120  gram  field;  and  (b)  Ten  common  ob- 
jects, averaging  552.7  grams,  and  all  falling  above  the  40-120 
gram  field.  (Detailed  results  are  given  in  Tables  VII  to  X,  pp. 
264ff ;  averages,  in  Tables  III  and  IV,  pp.  260,  263.) 

All  weights  were  lifted  from  a  cushioned  surface  through  a 
distance  (about  six  inches)  limited  by  a  taught  cord,  during  a 
given  time  (one-half  second)  controlled  by  a  metronome,  and 
were  replaced  in  the  same  time. 

Efficiency  was  measured  in  per  cent — the  ratio  of  the  amount 
of  deviations  in  the  final  to  the  first  tests.  The  following  table 
gives  the  averages  for  each  reagent : 


40  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

Reagents                Training  Test                     Test 

Series  Within  Field  Above  Field 

40-120  g.  40-120  g. 

Gs 74  71-6                      56.7 

Cr 80  70.8                     244 

If  per  cent  of  improvement  is  found  by  taking  the  comple- 
ments of  the  per  cent  of  error,  we  get  the  following  comparison 
of  averages  with  the  results  of  Thorndike  and  Woodworth : 

Reagents  Training  Test  Test 

Series  Within  Field       Above  Field 
40-120  g. 
Thorndike 
&  Wood- 
worth's*  Re-        W 49  62  33.2 

agents  T 40.7  13  -1.2 

Our  Gs 26  28.4  43.3 

Reagents  Cr 20  29.2  -244 

From  the  tables  it  is  noticeable  that  our  results  are  more 
uniform  for  the  two  reagents  than  are  those  of  Thorndike  and 
Woodworth's.  In  each  case  one  reagent  shows  no  improvement 
in  the  tests  on  objects  above  the  field,  Cr.  making  244%  more 
deviation  in  his  final  than  in  his  first  test.  With  this  exception  our 
reagents  showed  in  the  test  series  more  improvement  in  every 
case  than  was  made  in  the  training,  and  thus  show  more  general 
practice-effect  than  was  shown  in  the  original  experiment. 

Cr.'s  loss  of  244%  in  the  test  on  objects  above  the  field  is 
easily  explained  by  his  introspection  that  his  estimates  "were 
mere  calculations  upon  the  old  reproduced  kinaesthetic  image  of 
the  1000-gram  scale  weight"  which  was  accidentally  handled 
just  before  the  first  test  was  taken,  and  by  the  fact  that  his  devi- 
ations in  the  first  test  were  remarkably  small,  totaling  only  15% 
of  the  total  weight  lifted;  (his  deviation  on  objects  inside  the 
field  in  the  first  test  was  26.1%  of  the  total  weight  lifted;  the 
corresponding  figures  for  Gs.  were,  inside  the  field  29.7%,  out- 
side the  field  52.8%).  (Besides  the  tables  referred  to,  see  also 
Plates  VIII  to  XII,  pp.  266ff  for  curves.) 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  41 

( I )   Conclusion 

The  process  during  the  training  in  Cr.'s  case  was  a  building 
up  of  a  definite  idea  of  the  40-120  gram  field,  and  of  acquiring 
facility  in  estimating  the  relative  position  of  any  weight  within 
that  field ;  in  the  case  of  Gs.,  a  deepening  of  the  impressions  of  the 
40-gram  and  120-gram  blocks,  which  were  used  as  bases  of  judg- 
ment. No  hard  and  fast  associations  between  the  "heft"  of  a 
weight  and  the  idea  or  expression  of  its  weight  in  grams  could 
be  detected. 

No  definite  associations  were  built  up  for  probably  two  reasons : 
(i)  Each  series  consisted  of  17  blocks,  which  number  was  proba- 
bly too  great  to  permit  identity^;  and  (2)  the  "heft"  member  of 
the  association  is  exceedingly  variable,  for  besides  the  influence 
of  the  preceding  weight,  of  the  preceding  estimate,  and  of  the 
preceding  error,  it  was  affected  by  ( i )  the  height  at  which  the 
weight  is  grasped  with  the  fingers,  for  if  it  is  grasped  at  the  top 
the  block  will  "swing"  and  if  it  is  grasped  at  the  bottom  it  will 
"topple,"  in  either  case  being  "active"  in  comparison  to  the 
equilibrium  of  the  grasp  at  the  center  of  gravity,  it  is  likely  to 
be  over-estimated;  (2)  the  tightness  with  which  it  is  grasped, 
for  a  loose  grasp  (a)  permits  a  "pull"  on  the  skin  of  the  finger 
and  thumb,  tending  to  cause  over-estimation,  and  (b)  does  not 
permit  "coldness"  of  the  weight  to  be  so  well  sensed,  tending  to 
cause  under-estimation ;  (3)  whether  or  not  the  reagent  has  been 
holding  his  pen  tightly  in  writing  introspections;  (4)  whether 
the  hand  is  cold  or  warm,  upon  which  depends  the  seeming  tem- 
perature of  the  block,  a  cold  block  appearing  heavier  than  a 
temperate  one;  (5)  whether  the  weight  is  lifted  with  a  jerk, 
which  increases  its  "heft";  (6)  whether  it  is  stopped  with  a  jerk 
before  setting  it  down,  which  also  increases  its  "heft";  (7) 
whether  reagent  is  in  "good  tone,"  else  all  weights  seem  heavier ; 
(8)  and  whether  one's  attention  is  distracted  by  counting  metro- 
nome beats  by  which  to  gauge  the  movement. 

This  process  of  estimating  weights  is  therefore  a  very  complex 
one,  and  for  that  reason  not  best  fitted  to  throw  light  upon  our 

*That  recognition  of  stimuli  diminishes  with  increase  of  members  in  the 
series,  was  shown  by  Lehmann  (Ueber  Wiedererkennen.    Phil.  Stud.,  5:138). 


42  JOHN  EDGAR  C DOVER 

problem,  too  many  irrelevant  factors  are  possible  in  both  training 
and  tests,  to  leave  our  results  unambiguous.  Witness  the  fact 
that  more  improvement  was  made  in  the  test  than  in  the  training 
series. 

Both  of  the  activities  engaged  in  these  two  repeated  experi- 
ments were  rather  complex,  and  both  included  motor  elements 
that  come  in  for  their  share  of  the  general  effect  of  special  prac- 
tice. These  experiments  had  been  devised  to  learn  the  relation- 
ship of  activities  with  reference  to  the  product  of  their  application 
rather  than  to  their  kind, — they  were  word-marking  and  weight- 
estimating  activities  among  which  we  have  found  general  practice 
effect,  and  have  determined  the  principal  factors  to  be  general  in 
nature. 

An  ideal  experiment  for  determining  functional  relationship  of 
mental  activities,  it  would  seem,  should  be  devised  with  reference 
to  some  well-known  and  simpler  kind  of  mental  activity,  with 
conditions  such  that  identical  motor  elements  do  not  share  re- 
sponsibility with  mental  factors  for  general  effect  of  practice. 

2.  Experiments  on  the  More  Simple  Processes 


The  following  two  experiments^  were  devised  to  meet  the  re- 
quirements just  mentioned.  They  employ  the  same  kind  activity 
upon  dissimilar  stimuli  and  engage  different  motor  elements.  Any 
transference  here  of  acquired  efficiency  from  a  trained  to  an  un- 
trained mental  activity  must  be  explained  upon  psychical  grounds 
alone. 

The  first  experiment  was  devised  to  determine  the  effect  of 
practice  upon  efficiency  in  an  unpracticed  activity;  the  second, 
to  determine  the  effect  of  practice  upon  facility  of  improvement 
in  another  practiced  activity. 

a.  Sensible  Discrimination. 

Four  reagents  were  trained  in  Sensible  Discrimination  of  the 
intensities  of  sound  for  17  days  during  an  interval  of  57  days. 
Each  reagent  took  40  judgments  per  day's  training. 

"  A  brief  report  of  these  was  made  'by  Coover  and  Angell  in  the  Am.  Jr. 
Psych.,  1907,  18 1327,  under  the  title  of  "General  Practice  Effect  of  Special 
Exercise." 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  43 

Before  and  after  training  they  were  tested  in  sensible  dis- 
crimination of  intensities  of  brightness,  each  test  consisting  of 
3  days'  tests  of  35  judgments  each. 

In  the  training  on  sound  the  stimuH  were  given  with  a 
Wundtian  sound-pendulum."  The  method  was  that  of  constant 
changes,  Right  and  Wrong  Cases,  procedure  without  knowledge. 
The  variable  succeeded  the  norm  in  4  seconds.  Some  D  ^  o, 
many  D  J  S  and  the  larger  D  >  S.  The  number  of  V  >  N  = 
V<N,  and  there  were  about  ten  values  for  D  in  each  series. 
Judgments  were  made  in  four  categories:  >,  <,  ||I,  and? 
(greater,  less,  like,  and  undecided).  In  a  couple  of  series  each 
day  introspections  were  noted  down  by  the  reagent  after  each 
judgment;  in  the  remaining  series  noting  introspections  was 
reserved  until  after  each  series.  Reagents  sat  in  marked  posi- 
tions with  backs  to  the  apparatus.  This  training  consisted  of 
very  careful  work,  the  data  being  designed  for  use  in  another 
investigation  also. 

Efficiencies  at  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  the  training  were 
calculated  in  per  cents  of  Right  cases  in  the  first  ten  and  last 
ten  judgments  made  upon  six  values  of  D.  Judgments  on 
D^o  were  not  included,  and  'like'  judgments  on  other  values 
for  D  were  counted  an  'undecided.'" 

Table  XIV  (p.  270)  gives  the  number  of  R,  W,  and  U  judg- 
ments, per  cent  of  R  judgments  made  on  each  variable,  and  the 
per  cent  of  R  and  U  judgments  made  in  each  series,  at  the 
beginning,  and  Table  XV,  at  the  end  of  the  training  on  sound. 

In  the  tests  on  brightness  a  Marbe  color-mixer^  was  used  to 
present  the  stimuli.  Artificial  light  was  used,  and  the  apparatus, 
including  the  disc  when  not  exposed,  was  securely  screened  in 
black.  Apparatus  was  also  mounted  on  noiseless  bearings. 
Values  for  D  were  chosen  after  a  preliminary  series  so  that  there 
would  be  some  D>S=V>N,  and  some  D>S=V<N;  some 
D  >  S  and  some  D^o.     The  variables  succeeded  the  norms  in 

"III.  in  double  form  in  Wundt :  Grungziige  d.  Physiol.  Psych.  (5th  Auf  ) 
111:503. 
'Cf..  F.  Angell:    Discrimination  of  shades  of  gray,  etc.    Phil.  Stud.    19:20. 
'Illustrated  in  Wundt:  Grundziige  d.  Physiol.  Psych,  (sth  Auf.),  1:524. 


44  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

4  seconds  and  the  disc  was  exhibited  2  seconds.  As  in  the 
training  in  sound,  a  signal  was  given  two  seconds  before  the 
norm  was  given.  The  method  was  that  of  Right  and  Wrong 
cases,  and  the  procedure  was  without  knowledge.  Judgments 
were  given  here  also  in  the  four  categories.  Introspections 
were  noted  by  the  reagents  after  each  series  of  7  judgments. 
Each  day's  experimentation  was  preceded  by  a  short  preliminary 
series,  the  judgments  of  which  were  not  recorded.  The  order 
of  variables  which  was  used  in  the  before-training  test  was 
repeated  in  the  after-training  test,  and  was  believed  by  the 
reagents  to  be  by  chance. 

The  initial  efficiency  of  the  reagents  in  brightness-discrimina- 
tion was  calculated  in  per  cent  of  R  judgments.  Here  also  the 
judgments  on  D^o  were  not  included,  and  the  'like'  judgments 
on  the  other  values  of  D  were  counted  as  'undecided.' 

Tables  XI-XIII,  pp.  269ff,  give  the  number  of  R,  W,  U 
judgments  made  in  brightness-discrimination  for  each  day,  num- 
ber of  R,  W,  U  and  %  of  R  judgments  for  each  test,  upon 
each  variable;  and  totals  for  each  test,  both  before  and  after 
training. 

( I )   Control  Experiment 

In  order  to  be  more  sure  of  the  factors  of  transference,  in 
case  there  should  be  any,  a  control  experiment  was  devised. 

Three  reagents  were  given  tests  in  brightness-discrimination 
under  conditions  identical  with  those  obtaining  with  the  regular 
reagents,  except  that  two  instead  of  three  days  were  taken  as  a 
basis  for  a  test.  And  after  an  interval,  without  practice,  of  46 
days,  the  tests  were  repeated. 

Tables  XVI-XVII  (p.  271)  give  the  data  from  which  effi- 
ciencies were  calculated  in  the  same  manner  as  were  the  others. 

Tables  XVIII  and  XIX  (p.  272)  compare  the  results  of  the 
two  groups  of  reagents. 

(2)   Results 

A  comparison  of  results  for  all  reagents  is  given  in  absolute 
amounts  in  Table  XVIII  and  in  relative  amounts  in  Table  XIX. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  45 

The  per  cents  in  the  latter  table  are  all  reckoned  upon  the  whole 
number  of  judgments  in  their  respective  tests  which  are  repre- 
sented in  the  tables. 

From  Table  XVIII  it  may  be  seen  that  in  the  test  on  bright- 
ness-discrimination Aw.,  a  regular  reagent,  made  66.770  in  R 
judgments  before  training,  and  71.1%  after,  showing  a  gain  of 
the  difference,  4.4%.  He  made  at  the  beginning  of  training 
on  sound-discrimination,  36.7%,  and  at  the  end,  51.7%,  showing 
a  gain  resulting  from  training  of  the  difference,  15%.  In  both 
test  and  training  series  he  lost  in  'undecided'  judgments. 

Rl.,  a  control  reagent,  made  in  the  test  before  the  unpracticed 
interval  68.3%  in  R  judgments,  and  63.3%  after,  showing  a 
loss  of  the  difference,  5%.  There  was  also  a  gain  of  5%  in 
'undecided'  judgments. 

Of  the  four  regular  reagents,  Ya.  is  the  only  one  who  did 
not  show  improvement  in  the  test  in  brightness-discrimination, 
and  he  shows  no  improvement  in  training  on  sound-discrimina- 
tion. He  is  the  only  reagent,  also,  who  shows  an  increase  in  U 
judgments  in  the  test  series,  and  he  shows  similar  increase  in 
the  training  series. 

All  control  reagents  show  a  loss  in  R  judgments^  in  the  test 

*To  a  statement  of  this  fact  in  a  former  report  (Am.  Jr.  Psychol.  18:332) 
a  recent  reviewer  objects  :  "But  the  only  use  to  which  this  fact  should  be 
put  is  to  prove  the  unreliability  of  a  determination  of  discrimination  of 
brightness  based  on  seventy  comparisons  of  pairs  of  grays.  To  defend 
general  spread  of  special  practice  by  the  doctrine  that  men  possess  a  ten- 
dency to  grow  worse  and  worse  each  week  if  left  without  it,  is  more  dam- 
aging to  it  than  to  attack  it."  (Thorndike :  Educational  Psychology,  vol.  II, 
p.  400.)  This  "only  use  to  which  this  fact  should  be  put,"  it  must  be  con- 
fessed, did  not  appear  so  conclusive  to  the  authors  of  that  report  in  the  face 
of  the  consistency  of  the  three  measurements;  they  were  inclined  to  let  it 
stand  as  evidence  of  no  improvement.  Since  some  further  significance,  how- 
ever, seems  demanded,  the  writer  begs  to  suggest  that  owing  to  general 
fatigue  of  the  reagents,  incident  to  the  heavier  work  of  the  end  of  the  Sem- 
ester, or  to  slightly  more  difficult  conditions  for  discrimination,  incident  to 
the  use  of  another  pair  of  discs  in  all  the  after-interval  tests,  either  or  both 
limiting  causes  applying  equally  to  both  groups  of  reagents.  Right  judg- 
ments were  slightly  more  difficult  to  make  after  the  interval  than  before, 
and,  consequently,  the  real  effect  of  practice  in  sound-discrimination  upon 
facility  in  brightness-discrimination  is  probably  in  excess  of  the  amounts 
reported  in  the  tables. 

An   implication,   in   the   same   review,   to   the  effect   that   the  use  of   'like' 


46  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

after  their  unpracticed  interval,  and  two  of  them  show  also  a 
gain  in  U  judgments, 

(3)   Conclusion 

The  transference  of  improvement  in  sensible  discrimination 
from  training  on  sound  stimuli  to  efficiency  with  brightness 
stimuli  would  seem  to  be  unequivocally  shown  by  these  results. 

All  the  reagents  who  showed  improvement  in  the  training 
on  sound,  showed  improvement  in  the  tests  on  brightness.  One 
reagent  who  took  training  and  did  not  show  improvement  in 
the  tests  on  brightness  showed  no  improvement  in  his  training 
on  sound.  All  the  reagents  who  took  the  tests  on  brightness, 
but  who  took  no  training  during  the  interval  between  the  tests, 
showed  no  improvement. 

The  increase  in  efficiency  in  brightness  discrimination  was 
not  due  to  practice  incident  to  the  tests. 

The  factors  of  improvement  which  have  proven  to  be  so 
general  in  character  are  not  identical  motor  elements,  for  appli- 
cation to  the  two  kinds  of  data  employed  disparate  senses. 

To  locate  them  we  will  have  to  resort  to  an  analysis  of  the 

judgments  has  clouded  our  measurement  of  the  capacity  for  discrimination 
and  has  opened  the  door  to  increase  in  Right  judgments  merely  through 
"taking  pains  to  get  a  judgment  of  difference  one  way  or  the  other"  (p.  400), 
neglects  several  important  considerations,  (i)  There  is  no  psychological  pro- 
cedure, with  the  method  of  Right  and  Wrong  Cases,  for  determining  the 
capacity  for  sensible  discrimination  without  the  use  of  the  'like*  or  'unde- 
cided' judgments ;  (2)  The  process  of  discrimination  is  itself  "taking  pains 
to  get  a  judgment  of  difference  one  way  or  the  other,"  and  increase  in  capac- 
ity involves  diminishing  the  number  of  U  judgments  in  the  increase  of  the 
number  of  R  judgments.  (3)  If  "taking  pains"  were  to  involve  guessing  and 
not  judgment  of  difference,  W  cases  would  increase  as  rapidly  (theoreti- 
cally) as  R  cases  in  the  reduction  of  the  number  of  U  cases ;  whereas, 
the  two  trained  reagents  (Aw.  and  Cr.)  who  increased  their  R  cases  most 
also  decreased  slightly  their  W  cases.  (4)  A  forcing  of  judgment  "of  dif- 
ference one  way  or  the  other"  would  adulterate  the  R  cases,  won  by  "taking 
pains,"  with  R  cases,  won  by  chance,  distributed  by  the  usual  caprice  of 
variability  from  theoretical  probability,  and,  consequently,  would  preclude 
a  measurement  of  the  capacity  for  discrimination  altogether,  (s)  The  use 
of  'like'  or  'undecided'  judgments  permits  the  segregation  of  guesses  from 
judgments,  and,  consequently,  the  measurement  of  capacity  for  discrimination 
in  per  cent  of  R  cases. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  A7 

process   of   discrimination   which   the   introspections    from   the 
training  in  sound  enable  us  to  make. 

Although  sensible  discrimination  is  one  of  the  simplest  and 
most  fundamental  of  mental  activities,  these  introspections  show 
it  to  be  quite  complex :  The  attention  during  discrimination  may 
have  an 

(A)  External  reference,  in  which  case  the  events  compared  are  thought  of 
as  external  to  the  body.  And  the  judgment  may  be  the  result  of  (i)  Com- 
paring images,  or  it  may  be  (2)  Absolute  (without  comparison).  If  it  is  the 
result  of 

(i)  Comparison  of  images,  the  essential  or  sound  images  may  be  accom- 
panied by  images  of  disparate  senses  which  may  control  the  judgment;  they 
may  be 

(a)  Kinaesthetic,  as  pronouncing  the  name  of  the  quality  or  inten- 
sity of  sound,  or  as  the  feeling  of  effort  necessary  to  produce  the  sound,  by 
striking  the  table  with  a  gavel   (Aw.  May  5,  IV)  ;  or 

(b)  Visual,  as  picturing  the  apparatus  and  the  falling  ball,  as  seeing 
one  strike  a  table  with  a  gavel,  as  seeing  a  ball  fall,  as  seeing  smoke  that  would 
be  produced  by  a  percussion  cap  sounding  that  loud,  as  seeing  a  phonetic 
illustration  of  the  sound;  e.g.,  "Visual  image  of  a  tool  bench  where  I  worked 
a  while  last  summer;  the  sounds  seemed  similar"  (Aw.  May  8,  IV).  Had  a 
visual  image  of  "an  object  falling  on  sounding  board"  (Aw.  May  5,  IV). 
Had  a  visual  image  of  a  "mouth  slowly  contracting  to  give  a  lower  sound" 
(Aw.  May  5,  IV).  "Had  a  sudden  visual  image  of  illustration  in  phonetics  to 
fit  the  norm,  and  thought  of  it  as  about  three  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter 
the  short  way.  When  the  variable  came  it  took  like  form,  but  smaller." 
(Cr.  May  10,  II). 

(c)  The  sound  images  may  come  with  attributes  of  quickness, 
sharpness,  length,  breadth,  or  distance :  "Variable  came  forth  quickly.  Had 
visual  image  of  quick  movement"  (Na.  March  15,  II).  "Variable  had  a  long- 
drawn-out  sound"  (Aw.  May  8,  II).  "Variable  is  broader  sound,  that  is  to 
say,  widely  spread"  (Na.  March  13,  II).  "Variable  comes  from  farther 
place,"  "Variable  comes  from  nearer  source,"  "Variable  is  a  small  sound" 
(Na.  March  13,  II). 

(d)  The  accompanying  imagery  may  be  auditory,  as,  "Pitch  was 
higher,"  (CI.  March  15,  I).  "Lower  in  pitch"  (CI.  March  15,  I),  or  it  may 
seem    muffled.      Then    there    are 

(2)  Absolute  judgments  made  without  comparison,  and  which  may  or 
may  not  be  accompanied  by  the  same  imagery  as  the  above.  "The  last  one  was 
weak,  and  I  did  not  compare  it  with  the  norm"  (Aw.  March  13,  I).  And 
the  final  form  is 

(3)  Without  localization  of  the  sounds  and  without  accompanying 
images    from   disparate   senses. 

But  the  attention  during  discrimination  may  have  an 


48  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

(B)  Internal  reference,  in  which  the  events  compared  are  thought  of  as 
internal  to  the  body.    The  comparison  of  norm  and  variable  may  be  between 

(i)  Ear  disturbances,  the  ringing  or  resonance  of  the  sounds  as  lo- 
cated in  the  ear.  "Had  resonance  in  ear"  OCl.  Mardh  13,  II).  Or  comparison 
may  be  between  the 

(2)  'Affects'  upon  us  as  a  sensing  being,  and  may  be  accompanied  by 
imagery,  as  of  being  struck  on  the  arm  with  the  suggested  intensity.  "Dis- 
criminate 'affects'  in  head  rather  than  external  sounds"  (Cr.  May  15,  IV).  Or 
the  comparison  may  be  between 

(3)  Degrees  of  reaction  to  the  two  sounds,  in  which  the  reagent  abstracts 
from  the  kind  of  stimuli, — light,  tactual,  or  electrical,  would  do  as  well  and 
could  be  compared  with  each  other, — as  the  reactions  to  a  flash  from  a  search- 
light or  the  explosion  of  a  torpedo ;  to  the  flash  of  a  bicycle-lamp  and  the 
slam  of  a  door  or  a  nudge  in  the  ribs.  "Seemed  to  compare  reactions  to 
the  sounds"   (Cr.  March  15,  I  and  March  20,  III). 

This  classification  of  factors  involved  in  the  process  of  sensible 
discrimination  of  sound  stimuli,  as  the  introspections  quoted  will 
serve  to  indicate,  is  not  merely  a  logical  scheme,  but  rests  solely 
upon  our  results.  These  are  some  of  the  factors  involved,  and 
they  may  become  controlling  factors  also,  so  that  had  they  not 
accompanied  the  process,  the  judgment  upon  a  given  pair  of 
stimuli  would  have  been  reversed.  Without  doubt  the  imagery, 
whether  attention  is  directed  externally  or  internally  to  the 
events  compared,  is  in  its  quantitative  aspect  suggested  by  the 
real  intensities  of  the  sounds.  But  the  imagery  may  carry  the 
suggesting  elements  beyond  the  degree  suggested;  and  it  may, 
if  it  is  not  suggested  by  the  intensity  but  by  some  other  attri- 
bute of  the  sound,  counteract  and  overcome  the  real  relation 
of  the  intensities,  so  as  to  reverse  the  judgment.  E.g.,  (i)  If 
the  imagery  is  that  of  falling  balls  upon  a  sounding  board,  and 
some  quality  of  the  given  sound  other  than  intensity  suggests 
the  second  as  being  larger  than  the  first  although  it  does  not 
appear  to  fall  from  as  great  a  height  (suggested  by  the  in- 
tensity of  the  sound),  the  judgment  may  be  'greater'  in  deference 
to  the  suggested  difference  in  size;  when,  had  the  imagery  left 
the  size  the  same,  the  judgment  would  have  been  'less'  in  de- 
ference to  the  height.  (2)  If  the  second  sound  seems  to  come 
from  farther  away  than  the  first,  judgment  may  make  allowance 
for  the  difference  in  distance  and  thereby  underestimate  the 
former.     Or  (3)  if  the  second  sound  seems  muffled,  allowance 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  4^ 

may  be  made  in  the  judgment  for  it  and  it  may  be  reported  as 
intense  as  it  would  have  been  had  it  not  been  muffled.  (4)  If 
the  second  sound  seems  quicker,  sharper,  or  narrower,  its  in- 
tensity through  analogy  from  pressure  or  pain  sensation  may 
be  overestimated.  (5)  When  the  ear  disturbance  is  the  object 
of  attention,  the  variation  of  the  pressure  of  the  air  in  the 
middle  ear  due  to  the  eustachian  tube  opening  and  closing  while 
swallowing,  and  of  the  adjustment  of  the  tympanum,  make  dif- 
ferent bases  upon  which  sounds  of  the  same  intensity  may  be 
judged  to  be  different.  (6)  If  the  'affect'  is  the  object  of 
attention  and  the  imagery  is  of  being  struck,  any  suggestion 
that  results  in  having  the  second  stroke  fall  upon  the  same  or 
a  more  tender  place  might  lead  to  over-estimating  its  intensity. 
(7)  And  our  reactions  may  also  be  modified  by  elements  of 
imagery  suggested  beyond  the  warrant  of  the  intensities  of 
the  sounds,  and  also  by  an  imagery  in  which  our  responsiveness 
is  an  essential  element,  so  as  to  result  in  modified  judgments 
upon  the  sounds  (reactions). 

Besides  these  various  factors  which  accompany  the  essential 
sound-discriminating  process  by  reason  of  imagery  or  the  direc- 
tion of  attention  to  the  events  compared,  there  are  disturbing 
factors  of  a  general  nature,  as  strong  expectation  for  a  loud 
or  weak  sound,  and  the  varying  intensity  of  the  state  of  atten- 
tion. If  a  loud  sound  is  strongly  expected,  a  weak  one  may 
seem  weaker;  if  a  weak  one  is  expected,  a  loud  one  may  seem 
louder.  If  the  intensity  of  the  state  of  the  attention  is  sought 
to  be  kept  at  maximum,  it  will  vary  greatly,  due  both  to  its 
own  rhythm  and  to  the  varying  subjective  conditions  upon  which 
it  depends. 

Improvement  seems  to  consist  in  divesting  the  essential  pro- 
cess of  the  unessential  factors,  freeing  judgment  from  illusions 
to  which  the  unnecessary  and  often  fantastic  imagery  gives 
rise,  and  of  obtaining  a  uniform  state  of  attention  which  is 
less  than  the  maximum:  "J'-iflg'ment  does  not  require  strained 
attention.  All  are  quite  certain  or  satisfactory.  Don't  see 
what  the  process  is  now — seems  automatic,"  (Cr.  May  12,  IV). 


50  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

And  uniformity  of  direction  of  attention  may  also  result:  "Am 
able  to  abstract  from  visual  image  of  the  apparatus  entirely, 
and  )^et  refer  the  sounds  to  external  stimuli.  This  seems  to 
take  the  least  ei¥ort  and  is  more  satisfactory,"  (Cr.  May  17,  IV). 
Many  of  the  introspections  of  the  various  reagents,  near  the 
end  of  the  training,  were,  "No  imagery." 

Our  conclusion  upon  the  experiment,  therefore,  is  that 
efficiency  in  sensible  discrimination  acquired  by  training  w^ith 
sound  stimuli  has  been  transferred  to  the  efficiency  in  dis- 
criminating brightness-stimuli,  and  that  the  factors  in  this 
transference  of  power  are  necessarily  general  rather  than  special 
in  character. 

b.  Reaction  with  Discrimination  and  Choice 

Reaction  with  discrimination  and  choice  is  also  a  relatively 
simple,  definite,  and  measurable  activity,  which  permits  a  change 
in  both  the  motor  expression  and  in  the  stimuli  for  the  inter- 
polated psychical  process. 

Identical  motor  elements  were  eliminated  by  employing  a 
different  kind  of  stimulus,  and  a  different  form  of  reaction, 
although  the  sense  of  sight  received  the  stimuli,  and  reactions 
were  made  by  the  movements  of  the  hands. 

The  object  of  the  experiment  was  to  determine  the  influence 
of  improvement  in  the  efficiency  of  one  activity  upon  the 
facility  of  improvement  in  another  already  practiced.  This 
influence  could  show  itself  either  in  lowering  reaction-time  in 
the  latter,  or  making  it  more  regular,  or  both, — which  would 
be  apparent  in  a  practice  curve  of  the  tested  ability. 

Four  reagents  were  trained,  during  the  period  of  about  40 
days  (CI.  46,  Al.  41,  Cr.  41,  Bs.  27),  for  about  15  days  (CI.  14, 
AI.  13,  Cr.  15,  Bs.  11)  in  card-sorting;  during  which  time 
about  4000  cards  were  distributed  by  each  reagent  (CI.  4200, 
Al.  3800,  Cr.  5200,  Bs.  4000). 

Before  the  training  in  the  card-sorting  the  reagents  were 
trained  for  5  days  in  typewriter-reaction  aggregating  about  3000 
reactions   (CI.  2900,  Al.  2900,  Cr.  2700,  Bs.  3100)   and  after 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  Si 

training  in  card-sorting,  for  three  days,  aggregating  about  1800 
reactions   (CI.,  AL,  Cr.,  1800,  Bs.  1700). 

For  the  card-sorting  we  used  a  cabinet,  similar  to  that  illus- 
trated in  the  Psych.  Rev.^o  by  Jastrow,  which  had  six  com- 
partments {^Ya  X  4^  in.)  in  which  to  distribute  the  cards; 
and  smooth  round-cornered  cards  of  buff-colored  Bristol-board 
(77x52  mm.),  in  the  center  of  which  was  painted  in  water-colors 
a  rectangle  (12x52mm.),  six  colors  being  used:  Red,  Blue, 
Black,  and  Brown,  in  a  quite  heavy  shade;  and  Yellow,  and 
Green  in  rather  a  tint  than  a  shade.  The  cabinet  stood  at  a 
convenient  height,  and  was  entirely  covered  with  black  cloth 
to  avoid  distraction. 

In  card-sorting  the  reagent  stood  at  the  cabinet,  and  held 
in  his  left  hand  a  pack  of  50  cards,  from  the  top  of  which  he 
would  grasp  a  card,  turn  it  up  sufficiently  to  see  its  color  on  the 
under  surface,  and  toss  it  into  its  appropriate  compartment.  In 
about  the  middle  of  the  training  the  color  labels  were  removed 
from  the  compartments. 

The  cards  were  arranged  into  packs  of  50,  according  to  12 
different  orders  in  which  each  color  appeared  about  as  often 
as  another,  each  preceding  and  succeeding  each  other  about 
equally  often,  and  no  color  recurred  with  less  than  two  inter- 
vening colors.      (See  Table  XX,  p.  274,   for  the  orders.) 

The  assignment  of  the  colors  to  the  compartments  was  so 
made  that  the  more  apparent  spatial  relations  of  the  latter  would 
not  correspond  with  the  complementary  or  family  relations  of 
the  former: 


Brown 

Green 

Yellow 

Blue 

Black 

Red 

For  the  typewriter-reaction  we  used  a  No.  7  Blickensderfer 
typewriter,  which  was  fitted  up  with  a  screen  through  a  window 
in  which  but  one  letter  could  appear  at  a  time.  Series  of  letters 
were  printed  with  the  typewriter  and  cut  into  strips  which  could 

*° Jastrow:   Sorting  apparatus   for  the  study  of   Reaction  Times.     Psych. 
Rev.,  1898,  5 :279-285. 


52  JOHlSf  EDGAR  COOVER 

be  clipped  to  the  'scale-bar'  and  moved  behind  the  screen  by 
the  'carriage.'  The  spacing  of  the  letters  in  the  series  and  of 
the  typewriter  action  being  the  same,  the  strip  could  be  so 
adjusted  that  every  stroke  on  the  key-board  would  automatically 
present  a  new  letter  at  the  window  in  the  screen.  ^^ 

The  various  series  were  made  up  of  4  letters  in  such  a  way 
that  each  letter  appeared  about  as  often  as  another,  and  preceded 
and  succeeded  each  other  and  itself  about  equally  often.  A 
letter  was  added  to  the  beginning  of  each  series  the  reaction 
to  which  was  not  counted.  (See  sample,  Appendix  B.  Fig.  4, 
p.  289.) 

In  the  typewriter-reaction  the  reagent  sat  at  the  machine  and, 
holding  his  hands  in  position  over  the  lower  bank  of  keys  so  that 
the  first  two  fingers  could  strike  the  first  two  keys  on  either  side 
of  the  middle,  reacted  with  the  appropriate  fingers,  to  the  letters 
which  appeared  through  the  screen,  the  order  of  the  keys  upon 
which  the  fingers  rested,  from  the  left,  being  a-t-e-n.  These 
were  the  letters  used  in  constructing  the  series. 

The  time  of  reaction  to  each  letter,  as  well  as  of  the  whole 
series  of  fifty  was  recorded  in  another  room  by  electrical  con- 
nections upon  a  kymograph  drum  which  synchronously  recorded 
seconds  from  a  metronome. 

The  typewriter  itself  made  records  of  the  reactions  which 
could  be  inspected  for  accuracy. 

Efficiencies  in  both  card-sorting  and  typewriter-reaction  were 
calculated  in  time  (seconds)  and  accuracy  (errors)  per  100 
reactions, 

(i)   Control  Experiment 

In  order  to  determine  more  definitely  whether  improvement 
shown  in  typewriter-reaction  was  due  to  the  training  in  card- 
sorting,  three  reagents  were  trained  in  the  typewriter-reaction 
(600  per  day)  three  days  before  and  two  days  after  an  interval 
of  45  days  during  which  no  training  was  taken. ^^ 

"The  typewriter  thus  equipped  constituted,  in  its  essentials,  Seashore's 
"Psychergograph"  (vid.  Univ.  Iowa  Studies  in  Psychol.,  1902,  3:1-7). 

"  Owing  to  the  imperfections  of  this  control  experiment,  indicated  in  the 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  53 

(2)   Results 

Table  XXI  (Appendix  A,  p.  275)  gives  the  time  and  accuracy 
of  successive  hundred  reactions  on  the  typewriter  for  the  regular 
reagents,  both  (A)  before  and  (B)  after  training  in  card-sorting. 
The  italicized  figures  represent  the  time  of  the  first  hundred 
reactions  of  the  day's  training. 

Table  XXII  (p.  276)  gives  the  daily  average  time  and  error 
per  100  reactions  on  the  typewriter,  for  the  regular  reagents,  both 
(A)  before  and  (B)  after  training  in  card-sorting. 

Table  XXIII  (p.  276)  gives  the  time  and  errors  of  the  suc- 
cessive hundred  reactions  on  the  typewriter  for  the  control 
reagents,  both  (A)  before  and  (B)  after  an  interval  without 
practice;  Table  XXIV  (p.  278)  shows  the  daily  averages. 

Table  XXV  (p.  282)  gives  the  time  and  errors  per  successive 
100  reactions  of  the  regular  reagents  in  the  card-sorting  training. 
The  time  of  the  first  100  in  the  day's  training  is  italicized. 

Table  XXVI  (p.  283)  gives  the  daily  averages  of  the  same. 
These  last  two  tables  and  Plate  XVI  (p.  284)  show  that  in  the 
card-sorting  training,  maximal  efficiency  was  approximately  at- 
tained.    The  curves   (Plates  XVI  and  XVII,  pp.  284-5)   show 
lack  of  drop  and  are  fairly  regular. 

From  inspection  of  Tables  XXI  and  XXII  and  of  Plates 
XIII  and  XV  (pp.  275ff)  drawn  therefrom,  it  may  be  seen  how 
the  practice  in  card-sorting  affected  the  typewriter-reaction.  The 
curves  in  the  case  of  all  reagents  are  lower,  showing  shorter 
reaction-time,  and  they  are  more  regular,  showing  less  variability. 

(a)  Errors 

But  the  tables  also  show  in  the  second  training  an  increase 
of  errors,  and  the  question  immediately  presents  itself  as  to 
whether  the  increase  in  speed,  as  shown  in  the  tables  and  curves, 
has  not  been  due  to  greater  inaccuracy  and  therefore  no  increase 


following  pages,  a  second  group  of  four  control  reagents  were  later  given 
practice  equivalent  to  that  taken  by  the  Regular  reagents.  These  later  results 
are  included  in  the  tables  and  plates,  although  it  is  not  possible  to  spare 
space  for  a  qualitative  discussion  of  them  which  would  modify  slightly  their 
interpretation,  because  of  their  decisive  contribution. 


54  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

in  efficiency  is  shown  as  the  result  of  the  card-sorting  practice. 

Calculation,  however,  shows  that  the  records  most  responsible 
for  reducing  the  time  are  also  those  which  were  made  with  the 
lower  per  cents  of  error  (inspect  records  in  Table  XXI  B), 
or,  stated  differently,  that  the  higher  per  cents  of  error  correlate 
with  longer  time  and  that  the  reduction  in  time  has  been  made 
in  spite  of  the  increase  in  errors. 

From  the  cord-sorting  data  (Table  XXV)  32  time  records, 
half  with  no  errors  and  half  with  four  or  more  errors,  per  100 
reactions,  taken  from  the  data  of  Al,  Cr.,  and  Bs., — pairs  taken 
from  the  same  days  in  a  manner  to  eliminate  practice  effect,' — 
gave  an  average  of  96.5  seconds  per  100  reactions,  with  no 
errors,  and  102.2  seconds  per  100  with  four  or  more  errors. 

From  each  of  the  last  eight  days  of  training  (including  three 
after  card-sorting  practice)  were  selected  from  the  typewriter- 
reaction  data  (Table  XXI),  the  time  of  the  100  reactions  made 
with  the  fewest  errors,  and  the  time  of  the  100  reactions  made 
with  the  greatest  number  or  errors  for  the  day.  The  data  of 
each  reagent  were  kept  separate  and  the  columns  of  time  and 
errors   averaged   with   the   following   results : 

CI.  with  0.06  errors  averages  66.4  sec.  for  100  reactions 
«     2.3  "  "        67.9    "      "      " 

Al.      "     4.7  "  "        72.0    "      "      " 

"     9.9  "  "        73.0    "      "      " 


Cr. 

" 

1.4 

" 

« 

65.6 

« 

5-9 

" 

« 

68.4 

Bs. 

« 

2.Z 

« 

" 

77.8 

" 

7-9 

« 

(( 

81.6 

The  shorter  time  being  correlated  with  the  fewer  errors  can- 
not be  accounted  for  by  the  possibility  that  the  selected  records 
of  the  fewer  errors  have  occurred  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
day's  practice  and  hence  would  represent  a  disproportionate 
amount  of  daily  practice-effect,  for  the  records  of  the  greatest 
number  of  errors  have  occurred  later  in  the  day's  practice  just 
once  more  than  those  of  the  least  number  of  errors. 

Introspections  from  all  reagents  support  the  showing  made 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  55 

by  the  above  data  as  to  the  relation  between  errors  and  speed: 
Cr.  said,  "Made  mistake  and  was  bothered  thereby,"  (March  3), 
"Errors  result  in  confusion  and  pauses,"  (March  15).  Al.  re- 
marked, "the  large  number  of  mistakes  impedes  rapidity,  as  one 
is  troubled  by  them,"  (April  27).  And  Bs.  noted,  "mistakes 
were  noticed  and  caused  confusion  at  the  time,"  (March  20). 
For  these  three  reagents,  errors  reduced  the  speed  by  confusing 
or  vexing  them;  but  for  CI.,  by  inducing  introspection:  "I  do 
not  care  for  the  making  of  a  mistake  in  and  of  itself,  but  I 
always  pause  to  think  of  it  and  wonder  why,  and  that  lessens 
my  attention  to  the  business  in  hand,"  (March  i)  ;  "The  time  I 
spent  thinking  of  a  mistake  caused  a  delay,"  (Feb.  24).  Our 
errors  in  reacting  are  thus  causes  of  decrease  rather  than  of 
increase  in  speed. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  the  errors  are  not  greatly  increased  as 
may  be  seen  from  the  daily  averages  in  Table  XXII :  for  CI.,  Cr., 
and  Bs.,  the  increase  is  less  than  2%  in  the  second  training  in 
typewriter-reaction;  for  Al.  they  increased  but  6%,  and  much 
of  this  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  Al.  fell  more 
heavily  under  the  unfavorable  conditions  of  the  second  training, 
to  be  noticed  later,  than  did  the  other  reagents. 

Some  of  the  increase  in  errors  for  all  reagents  is  undoubtedly 
the  result  of  the  same  unfavorable  conditions  of  the  second 
training,  and  some  of  it  is  due  to  the  inability  to  inhibit  anticipa- 
tory reactions  during  the  rapid  rythm  of  the  later  practice,  which 
had  been  inhibited  in  the  slower  rythm  of  the  earlier  practice. 
This  latter  fact  is  also  supported  by  evidence  from  introspection, 
e.g.,  when  reactions  were  running  73.5  sec.  per  100,  CI.  said, 
"Several  mistakes  inhibited,"  (March  i),  and  after  practice  had 
reduced  the  time  to  63.3  sec.  per  100,  she  said,  "Was  running 
quickly;  reaction  simply  came  before  I  could  inhibit  making 
mistake  of  an  a  for  an  n,"  (March  10).  The  increase  of  errors 
may  not  mean  that  the  efficiency  of  reaction  to  letters  is  less 
therefore,  but  that  facility  of  reaction  has  increased  to  such  a 
speed  that  anticipatory  reactions  previously  inhibited  are  now 
made  before  they  can  be  inhibited.  And  the  error  once  made, 
the  speed  is  retarded. 


S6  JOHN  EDGAR  C DOVER 

In  comparing  efficiencies  in  the  typewriter-reaction,  therefore, 
we  may  look  upon  the  time  record  as  a  satisfactory  measure. 

For  the  purpose  of  learning  whether  the  more  unstable  asso- 
ciations between  the  various  letters  and  their  proper  reactions  of 
the  first  training  were  also  those  of  the  second  training,  the 
errors  of  the  whole  period  of  training  in  typewriter-reaction 
were  collected  and  classified.  The  weaker  associations  were  the 
same  for  both  periods.  For  CI.  e  and  t  were  interchanged  more 
than  any  other  two  letters,  and  a  and  t  were  the  second  pair  in 
instability;  for  Al.  a  and  t,  and  e  and  t;  for  Cr.  e  and  t,  and  a 
and  t;  for  Bs.  e  and  a,  and  e  and  t.  The  card-sorting  did  not 
change  the  peculiarities  in  the  errors  of  the  respective  reagents. 

There  were  probably  six  causes  for  the  errors :  ( i )  Lack  of 
coordination  between  the  letter  and  its  proper  reaction,  (2)  an- 
ticipation of  a  letter  in  which  the  reaction  took  place  before  the 
letter  was  cognized,  (3)  false  cognition  of  the  letter,  (4)  reac- 
tion incited  by  rhythm  without  recognition  of  the  letter,  (5) 
misplacement  of  the  fingers  on  the  keys,  and  (6)  raising  a  fairly 
automatic  process  into  clearer  consciousness  and  giving  the 
control  for  the  moment  to  voluntary  attention.  The  4th  and 
6th  causes  enumerated  are  probably  the  chief  factors  in  the 
increase  of  errors  in  the  second  training. 

(b)    Time 

The  gradual  improvement  made  in  the  card-sorting  may  be 
seen  in  Table  XXV  (p.  282)  and  on  Plate  XVI  (p.  284).  If 
the  first  and  last  400  reactions  are  taken  for  calculating  initial 
and  final  efficiencies,  the  training  resulted  in  the  following  prac- 
tice-efifect,  in  decrease  of  time:  CI.  23.5%,  Al.  28%,  Cr.  22%, 
Bs.  30%. 

The  decrease  in  time  in  the  second  training  in  typewriter- 
reaction  is  noticeable  in  both  Tables  (XXI,  p.  275,  XXII,  p.  276) 
and  Curves  (Plates  XIII,  p.  279,  XV,  p.  281). 

But  inspection  of  the  Tables  XXIII  and XXIV  (pp.  276-8),  and 
Plates  XIV  (p.  280)  and  XV  (p.  281)  of  the  control  reagents 
shows  that  they  also  improved  in  speed  after  their  unpracticed 
interval,  which  suggests  that  the  improvement  of  the  regular 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  57 

reagents  may  not  have  been  the  result  of  the  training  in  card- 
sorting,  and  invites  an  examination  into  the  relative  facility  of 
improvement.^^ 

The  curves  of  the  regular  reagents,  after  training  in  card- 
sorting,  show  more  improvement  in  regularity  than  do  those  of 
the  control  reagents,  after  the  unpracticed  interval;  they  also 
show  the  drop  in  time  to  be  greater  (except  in  the  case  of 
Ge.,  whose  curve  is  quite  abnormal).  (The  line  through  the 
curves  shows  the  average  of  the  last  day  before  card-sorting.) 

To  express  quantitatively  the  relative  improvement  in  speed, 
data  were  selected  from  Tables  XXI  and  XXIII  and  arranged 
as  is  found  in  Table  XXVII  (p.  283).  The  average  reaction 
time  per  100  was  found  for  the  second  and  third  days  of  training 
for  both  regular  and  control  reagents;  with  this  was  compared 
the  average  time  per  100  for  the  4th  and  5th  days  of  training, 
which  followed  the  2d  and  3d  in  continuous  training  in  the  case 
of  the  regular  reagents,  but  which  came  after  the  unpracticed 

"To  indicate  the  pitfalls  for  the  statistician  who  is  so  completely  absorbed 
in  the  tables  of  quantitative  results  as  to  neglect  the  processes  involved  in 
producing  the  results,  a  recent  reviewer  may  be  aptly  quoted  at  this  point: 
"Nothing  whatever  is  needed  to  account  for  the  improvement  in  typewriting 
save  the  special  practice  in  it"  (Thorndike :  Educational  Psychology,  vol. 
II 1407)  :  the  average  "improvement  from  the  first  three  days  before  training 
to  the  second  three  before  training  is  greater  than  the  improvement  from 
ths  three  before,  to  the  three  after,  training"  {op.  cit.,  406)  ;  as  though  one 
might  expect  considerable  improvement  in  this  typewriter-reaction  after  the 
practice-effect  of  3000  reactions  which  for  half  of  the  trained  reagents  had 
produced  about  maximal  efficiency.  And  it  is  claimed  that  the  control  reagents 
"show  no  inferiority"  to  the  trained  reagents  (ibid.  407)  ;  whereas,  as  is 
shown  later,  the  gain  during  the  interval  by  the  only  control  reagent  whose 
results  are  comparable  to  the  others  is  exceeded  by  the  gains  of  the  trained 
reagents  Al.  and  Bs.  and  about  equaled  by  the  gains  of  CI.  and  Cr.  for  whom, 
the  averages  of  the  table  might  have  suggested,  the  reactions  had  become 
automatic. 

Apart  from  the  unwarrantable  aggregating  of  results  so  disparate  in  ef- 
ficiency (or  their  place  on  the  practice-curve),  and  a  disregard  of  the  analysis 
in  the  text,  the  reviewer's  error  is  minimized  by  the  fact  that  by  chance  only 
the  daily  averages  were  accessible  to  him.  The  curves  (pp.  279ff)  plotted  by 
successive  100  reactions  show  the  facts  more  clearly,  and,  if  examined  with 
the  cautions  noted  in  the  text,  will,  in  all  probability,  clear  the  authors  of 
the  charge  that  they  "endeavor  to  extract  evidence"  (ibid.  408)  of  transfer- 
ence.   The  facts  would  then  seem  to  prove  the  conclusions. 


58  JOHN  EDGAR  C DOVER 

interval  in  the  case  of  the  control  reagents.  The  gain  made  by 
the  control  reagent  Mn.  (7%)  is  about  the  same  as  that  made 
by  the  regular  reagents  (CI.  6%,  Al.  0.8%,  Cr.  3%,  Bs.  8%) 
in  continuous  practice.  (We  disregard  Ge.'s  data — 16% — here 
as  abnormal,  for  reasons  given  later,  and  because  they  represent 
series  of  reactions  in  which  frequent  and  often  long  lapses  of  at- 
tention played  a  great  part).  Mn.  shows  gain  as  a  result  of  the 
interval.  But  comparison  of  the  average  time  per  icmd  reactions 
for  the  last  two  days  before  training  in  card-sorting  with  the 
average  for  the  first  two  days  after  training  shows  the  regular 
reagents  to  have  gained  more  than  Mn.  after  the  unpracticed  in- 
terval (CI.  6%,  Al.  16%,  Cr.  5%,  Bs.  12%),  except  in  the  cases 
of  CI.  and  Cr.,  to  be  noticed  later,  in  which  the  gain  was  about 
as  much. 

A  comparison  of  the  results  in  Table  XXVII  (p.  283)  as  well 
as  of  the  curves  is  misleading  unless  several  things  are  borne  in 
mind,  the  principal  of  which  are  (i)  that  the  control  reagents 
had  trained  but  three  days  (Gs.  one  day)  before  their  unpracticed 
interval,  while  the  regular  reagents  trained  five  days  before  their 
training  in  card-sorting,  and  for  that  reason  the  former  would 
be  expected  to  show  more  improvement  in  their  second  training 
as  a  result  of  practice  in  that  training;  and  (2)  that  the  control 
reagents  in  their  training  before  the  unpracticed  interval  showed 
comparatively  long  times  from  which  great  improvement  in  both 
absolute  amount  and  per  cent  could  be  made  before  much  skill 
would  be  shown :  the  last  daily  average  before  the  interval,  for 
Mn.,  is  as  high  as  the  first  daily  average  of  two  of  the  regular 
reagents  (CI.,  Cr.),  and  for  Ge.  almost  as  high  as  the  first  daily 
averages  of  the  slowest  regular  reagents  (AL,  Bs.). 

With  these  facts  in  mind  the  comparison  of  averages  in  Table 
XXVII  (p.  283)  of  the  curves  on  Plates  XIII-XV  (pp.  2yg^) 
discloses  a  noticeable  improz^ement  in  regularity  in  the  cases  of 
CI.  and  Cr.,  and  a  marked  improvement  in  speed  in  the  cases  of 
Al.  and  Bs.,  which  is  attributable  to  the  training  in  card-sorting.''-'^ 

"The  curves  of  the  second  group  of  control  reagents  (Bd.,  Bh.,  Bs.  2,  and 
Cf.)  compare  favorably,  in  time,  with  those  of  the  regular  reagents  CI.  and 
Cr.,  for  whom  the  processes  had  become  automatic,  but  they  contrast  mark- 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  59 

Some  explanation  might  be  offered  for  the  fact  that  the  im- 
provement in  speed  was  not  more  marked.  First,  we  had  sought 
to  determine  the  effect  of  training  in  card-sorting  upon  the 
practice-curve  of  typewriter-reactions.  But  the  typewriter- 
reaction  curve  had  already  attained  to  records  of  approximately 
the  maximum  speed  for  both  CI.  and  Cr.  CI.  is  skilled  in 
piano-playing,  and  Cr.  in  typewriting.  They  trained  for  five 
days  before  the  point  was  reached  where  the  influence  of  another 
training  should  be  determined. 

On  the  second  day  of  practice  CI.  remarked,  "The  fingers 
begin  to  react  at  the  mere  sight  of  the  letters  now" ;  on  the  third 
day,  "Reacting  today  is  growing  more  mechanical;"  and  on  the 


ediy  with  those  of  Al.  and  Bs.,  indicating  more  certainly  than  was  done  be- 
fore the  influence  of  the  card-sorting  practice.  The  particularly  significant 
comparable  curves  are  those  of  the  regular  reagents  Al.  and  Bs.  and  the 
control  reagents  Cf.  and  Mn. 

Some  slight  additional  evidence  in  support  of  the  hypothesis  of  a  function- 
al relationship  between  the  two  kinds  of  reaction  we  have  employed  is 
afforded  by  an  auxiliary  experiment  in  which  the  influence  of  practice  in 
typewriter-reaction  upon  card-sorting  was  tested.  The  four  reagents,  men- 
tioned above  and  on  pp  52f  as  the  second  group  of  control  reagents,  served 
in  this  experiment  as  the  regular  reagents,  practiced  by  4000  typewriter-re- 
actions each.  Immediately  before  and  on  the  last  day  of  that  practice  they 
sorted  at  one  sitting  four  packs  of  50  playing-cards  into  four  compartments 
labeled  Diamonds,  Spades,  Clubs,  and  Hearts : 

D  S 

C  H 

The  intervals  between  sortings  were  58  days  for  Bd.,  Bh.,  and  Bs.  2,  and 
44  days  for  Cf. 

Two  control  reagents,  Cn.,  and  Sn.,  sorted  four  packs  each,  before  and 
after  intervals  of  56  days  and  53  days  respectively. 

Both  groups  of  reagents  had  had  extended  practice  throughout  the  pre- 
ceding semester  in  sorting  playing  cards  by  suit  according  to  a  different 
method.  They  sorted  in  piles  upon  a  table  instead  of  into  compartments,  and 
sorted  to  the  place  of  the  preceding  card  instead  of  to  the  place  of  the  card 
held.  All  were  therefore  nearer  practiced  condition  in  sorting  cards  before 
the  interval  than  after  it,  which  may  account  for  the  loss  of  the  control 
reagents. 

One  of  the  regular  reagents  (Bs.  2)  was  suffering  from  a  severe  cold  on 
the  day  of  her  final  sorting  and  shows  no  improvement;  the  others  seem  to 
have  carried  over  some  practice-effect  from  typewriter-reaction  to  card-sort- 
ing, as  may  be  seen  from  Table  XXVIII  (p.  286)  and  Plate  XVIII  (p.  287). 


6o  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

fifth  day,  "Reaction  to  the  sight  of  the  letter  is  so  automatic  that 
I  can  think  of  other  things  as  I  operate.  .  .  .  During  the  reaction 
attention  was  not  well  concentrated  at  times  because  I  was  think- 
ing of  the  influence  of  thinking  about  your  rate  of  speed  upon 
your  speed."  Reacting  had  obviously  become  automatic.  And 
Cr.  on  the  third  day  of  training  remarked,  "reacting  is  becoming 
very  mechanical."  Hence  in  these  two  cases  we  have  determined 
the  effect  of  training  in  card-sorting  upon  typewriter-reaction 
after  it  had  already  been  trained  to  a  high  degree  of  automatiza- 
tion. The  cases  of  Al.  and  Bs.  are  different.  Neither  is  skilled 
in  typewriting,  although  each  had  used  a  typewriter,  and  Al. 
remarked,  "No  application  of  former  practice  with  the  type- 
writer,— motion  a  new  one,"  (Feb.  24).  They  did  not  speak  of 
the  process  as  being  automatic  before  the  card-sorting  began, — 
and  they  show  greater  practice-effect. 

Another  reason  may  be  given  for  the  reduction  in  time  not 
being  more  marked.  The  second  training  on  the  typewriter 
was  taken  by  the  Regular  reagents  during  April  26-28  while 
everybody  was  rushed  with  work  preparing  for  the  closing  of 
the  semester,  and  meeting  the  many  social  duties  coming  at 
that  time,  all  of  which  occasioned  general  fatigue  in  at  least 
three  of  the  reagents.  Cr.  took  the  first  day's  work  in  the 
second  training  so  late  that  the  room  was  dusk  and  his  atten- 
tion was  almost  wholly  directed  to  the  perception  of  the  letters : 
"Had  to  strain  to  perceive  the  letters;  this  part  of  the  process 
demanded  all  the  attention;  some  errors  are  due  to  mistaking 
at  first  the  letter  outline"  (April  26).  Al.  was  doing  heavy 
work  day  and  night:  "Reagent  very  tired,  cannot  hold  atten- 
tion; up  till  I  o'clock  preceding  night  busied  with  exhausting 
and  harassing  work"  (April  2y).  And  CI.  noted,  "Have  been 
up  late  for  six  out  of  seven  nights  past  and  feel  somewhat 
below  normal." 

But  the  most  marked  effect  of  card-sorting  on  the  typewriter- 
reaction  is  shown  by  introspections.  On  the  first  day  of  the 
second  training  CI.  remarks,  "Sight  of  letter  produced  the  reac- 
tion movement  without  my  thinking  of  my  fingers  and  not  at 
all  of  the  sight  of  the  keys"   (April  26).     Al.  remarked,  "No 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  6i 

headache,  no  nausea,  as  before  card-sorting,"  "Much  easier  than 
at  first";  "General  background  of  feeling  is  probably  not  unlike 
that  of  card-sorting,  but  I  did  not  think  of  the  card-sorting 
during  the  trial"  (April  26).  Cr.  said,  "Process  was  sur- 
prisingly automatic  and  was  accompanied  with  ease"  (April  26)  ; 
"seems  more  automatic  than  ever  before,  and  even  more  so  than 
the  card-sorting.  I  do  not  pay  slightest  attention  to  the  fingers 
or  the  keyboard  when  the  process  is  going  best  ...  it  appears 
that  the  old  associations  have  not  only  not  been  interfered  with  by 
forming  new  ones  in  card-sorting  but  that  they  have  become 
firmer  and  action  upon  them  more  ready  and  automatic  than  it 
was  before  or  than  it  was  in  card-sorting,"  (April  27).  On 
the  last  day  of  typewriter-training  before  card-sorting  began,  Bs. 
remarked,  "Pauses  between  letters  caused  by  having  to  think 
which  finger  I  should  put  down,"  and  on  the  first  day  after 
card-sorting,  "Seemed  more  natural  than  I  thought  it  would," 
and  the  next  day,  "Seemed  more  natural  to  react  today,  demands 
less  attention,  tendency  to  become  automatic." 

The  introspections  of  the  control  reagents,  none  of  whom  was 
familiar  with  typewriting,  show  that  while  some  ease  and 
facility  were  experienced  before  the  interval,  reaction  afterwards 
seemed  unexpectedly  "difficult"  and  "unhandy :"  Mn.  stated 
in  the  second  training  that  "Reacting  seemed  difficult,"  "Seemed 
to  have  to  stop  to  think  which  finger  was  to  react  to  the  dif- 
ferent letters."  Ge.  in  the  training  before  the  interval  said, 
"The  reactions  are  becoming  more  automatic,"  and  afterward, 
that  he  "looked  at  letters  not  knowing  what  to  do"  and  that 
"combination  of  letters  here  was  particularly  unhandy,"  The 
interval  without  practice  resulting  in  a  feeling  of  discomfort 
and  difficulty,  strengthens  the  point  of  the  preceding  paragraph 
that  the  training  in  card-sorting  is  the  cause  of  the  increased 
ease  and  facility  experienced  by  the  regular  reagents  in  the 
second  training  in  the  typewriter-reaction. 

(3)   Conclusion 

We  conclude,  therefore,  from  the  results  of  this  experiment, 
that  training  the  activity  of  reaction  with  discrimination  and 


62  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

choice  by  sorting  cards  into  compartments  has  increased  the 
facihty  of  the  same  activity  in  both  speed  and  regularity  in 
typewriter-reaction  (a)  noticeably  in  regularity  in  two  cases  after 
the  latter  had  become  automatic,  and  (b)  markedly  in  speed  in 
two  others  in  the  course  of  practice. 

The  cause  of  transferred  facility  could  not  have  been  identical 
motor  elements.  In  the  typewriter-reaction  the  eyes  rested 
sharply  fixated  upon  one  spot  on  the  screen  while  the  fingers, 
with  coordinating  wrist  and  forearm  movements,  tapped  down 
the  keys,  accessory  muscles  being  mainly  used;  in  the  card-sort- 
ing reaction  the  eyes  moved  from  the  cognized  colors  on  the 
cards  about  over  the  compartments  of  the  cabinet  or  followed 
the  movement  of  the  hand  and  fixation  was  nowhere  so  intense, 
while  the  right  arm  contributed  most  of  the  movement  in  grasp- 
ing the  cards,  turning  up  the  under  color-surface,  and  casting 
them  into  the  compartments,  using  mainly  fundamental  muscles. 

Neither  could  the  cause  have  been  habituation  to  the  stimuli, 
for  they  were  different  in  character:  one  being  a  small  symbol 
(form)  and  the  other  a  comparatively  large  rectangular  surface 
of  color. 

Nor  was  the  cause  identical  associations  between  stimuli  and 
reactions. 

According  to  the  introspections  of  the  regular  reagents  on 
their  card-sorting  training,  the  process  of  reaction  is  variable. 
At  the  beginning  of  training  they  matched  the  color  of  the  cards 
with  the  labels  on  the  compartments  then  to  increase  speed  a 
system  of  mnemonics  is  employed  designed  to  form  associations 
in  the  mind  between  a  compartment  and  its  color;  this  system 
then  goes  through  a  process  of  mutation — becoming  abbreviated, 
changed  in  part,  or  supplemented, — or  is  superseded  by  another; 
finally,  through  repetition  reactions  to  particular  compartments 
become  coordinated  with  their  respective  colors  and  are  made 
directly,  free  of  the  system  except  in  cases  of  emergency. 
Synchronously  with  the  growth  of  these  coordinations,  adven- 
titious processes,  as  pronouncing  the  color  when  cognized,  move- 
ment and  strain  of  the  whole  body,  and  disadvantageous  move- 
ments of  the  hand,  decrease  to  a  minimum. 

According  to  the  introspections  of  both  the  regular  and  control 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  ''63 

reagents  on  the  typewriter-reaction,  the  process  of  reaction  goes 
through  precisely  the  same  stages,  except  that  it  starts  with  a 
system  of  mnemonics,  and  systems  are  superseded  more  often. 
No  two  systems  are  alike.  But  all  finally  give  way  to  the  direct 
reaction  which  has  been  coordinated  with  its  letter.  Adven- 
titious processes,  as  pronouncing  letters  upon  cognizing  them, 
visualizing  keys,  fingers,  on  their  order,  likewise  decrease  to  a 
minimum. 

These  two  processes  so  summarily  described  are  necessarily 
related  to  their  particular  stimuli  and  their  appropriate  reac- 
tions, and  seem  therefore  fairly  independent  of  each  other. 
But  there  is  one  common  factor  already  apparent:  The  habit 
of  stripping  the  essential  process  of  its  adventitious  accessories. 
This  is  one  of  the  causes  of  transferred  facility,  and  we  shall 
notice  two  others. 

Introspections  also  state  that  in  any  one  series  several  systems 
of  mnemonics  may  be  operative;  there  may  be  some  direct  reac- 
tions due  to  coordination  of  stimulus  and  reaction,  some  due  to 
a  kinaesthetic  image  of  recent  reaction;  that  in  one  part  of  the 
series  one  stimulus  causes  difficulty  and  in  another  part  another 
stimulus;  that  some  stimuli  are  harder  than  others  throughout 
the  whole  series.  Improvement  here  seems  to  consist  in  re- 
solving the  reaction  process  to  a  single  type,  except  in  so  far 
as  reactions  become  direct,  and  to  attend  somewhat  more  closely 
to  the  difficult  stimuli  until  their  reactions  become  as  ready  as 
those  to  the  other  stimuli ;  but  also,  not  to  confine  attention  so 
closely  to  the  troublesome  stimuli  that  their  reactions  anticipate 
other  stimuli  and  cause  errors  thereby. 

Again,  introspections  and  records  show  that  even  after  a 
mnemonic  system  has  been  successfully  applied  and  has  served 
to  bring  stimulus  and  reaction  to  a  fair  degree  of  coordination, 
lapses  of  attention  occur  during  which  the  "mind  is  a  blank/' 
and  the  drum  records  abnormally  long  reactions.  Improvement 
here  consists  in  keeping  attention  upon  the  matter  in  hand  so 
constantly  that  irrelevant  stimuli  are  unnoticed. 

We  find,  therefore,  the  causes  of  the  transference  of  facility 
to  be  (a)  the  habit  of  reacting  to  a  stimulus  without  being 
delayed  by  prominent  kinaesthetic,  acoustic,  and  motor  accom- 


64  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

paniments  of  recognition,  through  gradually  dropping  these  out 
of  the  process,  or  reducing  them  to  a  minimum;  (b)  an  equitable 
distribution  of  the  attention  to  the  various  possible  reactions 
so  as  to  be  about  equally  prepared  for  all;  and  (c)  the  power  of 
concentrating  upon  the  process  through  a  whole  series  to  such 
a  degree  as  to  eliminate  distraction. 


II.  PRINCIPALLY  QUALITATIVE 


Experimentation  thus  far  had  pretty  well  established  the  fact 
of  the  general  effect  of  special  practice,  but  there  is  not  yet 
a  general  agreement  in  the  interpretation  of  the  results,  as  to 
extent  and  causes  of  transference  of  practice-effect;  and  in 
almost  all  investigations  there  stand  out  anomalous  cases  which 
remain  unexplained. 

Most  of  the  introspective  analyses  of  practice  effect  show  it 
to  be  extensively  general  in  both  positive  and  negative  influence, 
but  Sleight  argues  from  the  paucity  of  'significant'  values  in  his 
tables  that  it  is  narrowly  specific.  Ebert  and  Meumann  found 
training-effect  to  be  permanent  for  at  least  three  months ;  Sleight 
interprets  his  evidence  to  indicate  that  "the  effects  of  both  'direct' 
and  'indirect'  practice  are  usually  not  permanent."^^     Fracker 

*'  Op.  cit.,  p.  451. 

The  effect  of  practice  is  found  to  be  more  permanent  than  the  opposing 
factors  of  interference  (Bair:  The  Practice  Curve.  Psych.  Rev.  Mon.  1902. 
5:No.2,  and  Bergstrom:  An  experimental  study  of  some  of  the  conditions  of 
mental  activity.  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  1893-4,  6:272)  and  fatigue  (Kraepelin:  Die 
Arbeitscurve.  Phil.  Studien.,  1902,  19:476;  also,  A  measure  of  mental  capa- 
city. Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  1896,  49:760),  and  although  some  studies  showr  that  the 
greater  part  of  it  is  soon  lost  (Kraepelin:  loc.  cit.),  it  may  endure  for  a  long 
time : 

Kraepelin  found  that  two  'hours  of  practice  in  adding  left  noticeable  traces 
three  months  afterward,  and  that  the  effect  of  17  presentations  of  associations 
was  perceptible  lYz  years  later  {op.  cit.  S.  476). 

Ebbinghaus  (Grundziige  der  Psychologie,  2te  Auf.  Bd.  I.  S.  62,2,)  saved 
7%  in  number  of  repetitions  upon  relearning  stanzas  from  Byron's  Don  Juan 
after  an  interval  of  22  years ;  and  20%  after  an  interval  of  17  years. 

Bourdon  (Recherches  sur  I'habitude.  Annee  Psych.  1901.  8:327-340) 
found  that  skill  acquired  in  marking  out  letters  in  a  page  of  print  dropped 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  65 

found  the  greatest  cause  of  improvement  and  transference  in 
memory  of  simple  sounds  or  shades,  to  be  the  development  and 
carrying  over  of  representative  imagery  of  a  very  simple  and 
definite  type;  while  Ebert  and  Meumann  found  that  in  training 
on  non-sense  syllables  the  use  of,  and  dependence  upon,  repre- 
sentative imagery  of  all  kinds  dropped  away.  And  Fracker 
is  inclined  to  oppose  his  results  to  those  of  Coover  and  Angell 
because  the  latter  pointed  out  the  function  of  representative 
imagery  in  the  processes  of  discrimination,  and  of  reaction  with 
discrimination  and  choice,  to  be  respectively  a  distraction,  and 
a  temporary  but  probably  a  necessary  means  of  effecting  auto- 
matic coordination  between  stimulus  and  reaction. 

Almost  all  investigators  conclude  that  when  transference  of 
practice-effect  takes  place,  it  varies  in  amount  with  the  similarity 
of  either  the  material  or  the  method  of  the  tests  to  the  practice, 
and  there  seems  no  reason  why  one  should  not  hope  for  this 
law  to  be  finally  established.  But,  so  far,  either  the  ways  in 
which  practice  and  training  may  be  similar  must  be  multiplied 
and  further  defined  or  the  exceptions  to  the  law  appear,  upon 
inspection  of  the  results,  to  be  the  rule.  A  few  of  the  anomalies, 
for  the  purpose  of  illustration,  follow : 

From  the  results  of  Thorndike  and  Wood  worth,  we  note  that 
the  average  gain  in  training  on  estimating  areas  was  about 
52%,  that  tests  on  the  same  form  within  the  field  of  change 
of  area  in  training  yielded  an  average  of  61%;  but  that  above 
the  field,  same  form,  16%  ;  while  above  the  field,  different  form, 
51%.     Again,   one  reagent    (W)     in    training    on    estimating 


very  little  during  a  rest  of  236  days;  and  that  most  of  it  remained  at  the 
end  of  a  rest  of  seven  years. 

Book  (Psychology  of  skill,  with  special  reference  to  its  acquisition  in 
typewriting.  Univ.  Mont.  Bull.  1908.  53:75)  found  effect  of  practice  in 
typewriting  to  persist  after  a  rest  of  one  and  a  half  years. 

Swift  (Relearning  a  skillful  act:  An  experimental  study  in  neuro-muscu- 
lar  memory.  Psych.  Bull.  1910.  7:17-19)  found  skill  in  tossing  balls  to  be 
retained  275  days ;  and  that  it  could  be  rapidly  regained  after  an  interval  of 
6  years.  Skill  that  had  required  42  days'  practice  to  attain  was  regained 
in  II  days.  In  the  last  "try"  of  his  test  he  exceeded  his  former  skill,  in 
number  of  catches,  in  the  ratio  of  1600:1051. 


66  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

weights  made  49%  improvement,  while  estimating  objects  within 
the  field  of  training  he  made  62%. 

In  Ebert  and  Meumann's  research  we  found  improvement  in 
'immediate  memory'  for  non-sense  syllables  (the  training 
material)  to  be  20%  ;  while  for  numbers  it  was  29%,  and  for 
letters,  36% ;  if  the  grade  of  memory  at  "two-thirds  correct" 
is  considered,  for  non-sense  syllables  it  was  49%,  but  for  num- 
bers 56%.  In  'complete  learning,'  for  non-sense  syllables  it 
was  61%,  for  poetry  20%,  but  for  prose  it  was  43%.  One 
would  surmise  that  the  more  arbitrary  sequence  of  words  in 
poetry  would  make  it  more  similar  than  prose  to  the  training. 
Retention  after  24  hours,  of  non-sense  syllables,  was  improved 
45%,  but  of  optical  symbols  49%   and  of  prose  67%. 

From  Fracker's  research  we  found  the  average  gain  in  train- 
ing upon  memory  of  sounds  21%,  and  the  average  gain  upon 
the  test  on  grays  36%,  seven  of  the  eight  trained  reagents  gain- 
ing more  in  this  test  than  in  the  training.  Reagents  exceeded 
their  training  gain  in  other  tests  also :  on  nine  tones,  4  reagents ; 
on  nine  grays,  4 ;  on  four  pitches  of  a  tone,  2 ;  on  geometrical 
figures,  3.  From  the  monograph,  we  learn  that  F.  S.,  "a  grad- 
uate student  in  psychology,  who  was  trained  in  many  forms 
of  experiment"  (p.  64),  trained  on  sound  8  days,  taking  four 
sets  of  75  sounds  each,  per  day;  he  started  at  70%  reproduced 
elements,  and  finished  with  40%,  while  three  of  the  other 
reagents  finished  near  or  above  90%.  In  spite  of  his  inverted 
practice  curve  he  shows  gains  in  his  tests,  however.  If  his 
most  efficient  imagery  was  auditory,  as  it  seems  from  intro- 
spections upon  training,  and  his  test  on  four  pitches  (p.  82), 
to  have  been,  how  did  he  by  a  change  of  method  make  his 
greatest  gain  (26%)  upon  the  four  grays,  and  how  make  so 
little  gain  upon  nine  tones  (i % ),  and  upon  nine  numbers  (4% )  ? 
Another  reagent  (H.  C.  E.)  who  developed  during  training 
a  very  definite  visual  system  of  imagery  involving  four  posi- 
tions, made  more  gain  upon  the  square  of  geometrical  figures 
(35%)  than  he  did  in  training  (27%),  and  less  upon  the  four 
pitches    (23%)    than   upon   the   figures., 

From  Sleigfht's  research  we  noted  that  of  the  three  trained 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  67 

groups  of  children,  but  one  group  showed  improvement  in  the 
tests  more  similar  in  material  to  their  training  and  that  accord- 
ing to  the  two  sets  of  data  there  are  scarcely  any  correspondences 
between  the  'significant'  values  of  the  children  and  the  adults. 

It  is  probable  that  the  conflicting  nature  of  results  rests  largely 
upon  differences  in  detail  of  experimental  procedure:  the  kind 
and  length  of  training,  the  kind,  length,  and  number  of  tests, 
and  the  manner  of  scoring  and  comparing  results. 

The  paucity  of  'significant'  values  in  Sleight's  tables  may 
indicate  merely  that  (a)  the  training-effect  of  practice  on  the 
trained  groups  is  but  slightly  greater  than  the  training-effect  of 
other  school  work  upon  all  the  reagents;  (b)  statistical  treat- 
ment smothers  the  facts:  e.g.,  with  a  probable  error  of  i6,  and 
a  difference-score  of  53,  a  'significant'  value  would  necessitate 
a  gain  of  30  points  in  the  second  test  over  the  first  when  the 
average  score  in  the  first  was  but  66.8  (Group  2,  on  points), ^^ 
which  means  that  if  the  gain  in  the  second  test  is  not  about 
half  the  initial  capacity  it  cannot  be  considered  really  significant ; 
(c)  the  probable  error  is  unduly  large,  by  reason  of  widely 
differing  initial  efficiencies  of  individuals  (in  the  test  on  points 
initial  efficiencies  ranged:  for  School  X  27-93,  for  School 
Y  32-129,  for  School  Z  23-132).^'^  Where  individuals  differ 
so  greatly  in  capacity,  we  learn  in  following  experiments,  they 
are  not  doing  the  same  thing,  not  applying  themselves  to  the 
same  kind  of  work.^^ 

The  permanence  of  training-effect  found  by  Ebert  and  Meu- 
mann  may,  as  Sleight  thinks,  be  due  to  the  inadequacy  of  the 
per  cent  method  of  expressing  results,  or  to  greater  ease  of 
the  later  tests ;  again,  it  may  be  due  to  the  rigor  of  the  training, 
which   greatly    exceeded   that   of    Sleight's    reagents. 

The  usefulness  of  representative  imagery  found  by  Fracker 
may  be  largely  due  to  the  small  number  of  separate  units  of 

*'  Op.  cit..  Tables,  pp.  4I3-4I7- 

"Idem,  Table  I,  pp.  410-41 1. 

"HolHngworth  (Individual  differences  before,  during,  and  after  practice. 
Psych.  Rev.,  1914,  21 :8)  upon  the  basis  of  low  correlation  in  early  practice 
changing  to  high  correlation  in  later  practice,  concluded  that  in  the  early 
trials  he  was  not  "measuring  the  same  thing  with  all  performers." 


68  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

which  his  series  were  made  up,  and  to  the  simpHcity  of  the 
stimuH,  both  of  which  conditions  were  foreign  to  the  training 
material  of  the  reagents  of  Ebert  and  Meumann. 

The  anomalous  cases  may  be  due  to  inadequate  methods  of 
comparing  results  or  to  a  radical  change  in  the  reagent's 
processes. 

If  the  initial  capacities  of  two  reagents  are  not  about  equal, 
and  the  improvement  is  made  through  increasing  the  number 
of  units  of  work  within  a  given  time,  not  only  will  the  difference- 
score  of  the  lower  capacity  have  the  advantage  of  the  higher, 
because  of  more  room  for  improvement,  but  expression  in  per 
cent  of  gain  will  exaggerate  this  advantage.  (When  the  score 
is  reckoned  in  decrease  of  time  taken  to  perform  a  given  amount 
of  work,  the  expression  of  the  score-differences  in  the  form  of 
per  cent,  of  course,  compensates  in  a  measure  the  advantage  of 
the  low  initial  capacity). 

That  some  anomalies  are  the  result  of  radical  changes  in 
the  reagent's  processes  may  be  illustrated  by  a  few  cases  re- 
ported in  experiments  some  pages  back  (pp.  38ff.).  In  the 
word-marking  experiment  Gs.  made  his  lowest  gain  on  s-p  words 
(15%)^^  when  the  material  was  similar  to  that  used  in  the 
training,  while  on  material  different  from  the  training  he 
averaged  30% — in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  per  cent  form  of 
expression  tended  to  reduce  the  inequalities  among  initial 
capacities.  Upon  inspecting  the  table^*'  we  note  that  his  initial 
capacity  was  about  twice  as  high  as  in  the  other  tests.  Intro- 
spections state  that  his  method  of  marking  s-p  words  in  the 
first  test  was  radically  different  from  his  method  of  marking 
other  words  -.^^  he  took  p  for  the  cue  and  ran  his  eye  along  under 
the  line  for  the  projecting  stem;  he  took  advantage  of  the  form 
of  the  letter  to  turn  from  hunting  letters  to  hunting  a  certain 
rare  but  easily  recognizable  projection.  In  the  second  test  he 
hunted  for  letters.  His  low  gain  in  marking  out  l-o  words 
from  manuscript  pages  was  due  to  a  similar  change  in  process : 

"FtU,  Table  I,   (Appendix  A.,  p.  259). 

"^Vid.,  Table  II,  Plate  I,  (Appendix  A.,  pp.  260,  261). 

''  P.  38. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  69 

he  sought  above  the  Hne  for  the  loop  of  the  /,  to  the  first  test. 
Cr.'s  low  gain  on  s-p  words  was  owing  to  the  same  cause. 

In  the  weight-estimating  experiment,  Cr.'s  great  loss  on  ob- 
jects outside  the  field  was  owing  to  greatly  over-estimating 
the  weights  of  two  of  the  ten  objects — a  bottle  of  muscilage 
and  a  volume  of  the  Psych.  Rev.-^  He  used  in  both  tests  on 
this  series  of  objects,  as  a  basis  of  judgment,  a  kinaesthetic 
image  of  a  1000-gram  weight  accidently  handled  some  days 
before  the  first  test,  and  it  served  more  poorly  for  the  second 
test  since  it  was  more  vague, — a  process  very  different  from  his 
estimation  of  the  other  series  of  objects. 

Large  differences  in  an  individual's  results  appear  to  be  due 
to  a  radical  change  in  processes  and  for  that  reason  do  not 
seem  properly  comparable  with  his  other  difference-scores — 
the  scores  in  question  do  not  measure  the  same  kind  of  work. 
Whether  great  variation  in  initial  scores  of  different  reagents 
make  them,  for  the  same  reason,  non-comparable,  remains  for 
analyses  of  processes  to  determine;  if  they  are  non-comparable, 
no  other  statistical  device  is  likely  to  prove  more  satisfactory 
in  comparing  them  than  the  absolute  or  the  per  cent  form. 

Evidently  we  need  to  know  more  about  (a)  the  extent  of 
variability  in  processes,  with  a  single  reagent  and  between  dif- 
ferent reagents, ^^  who  set  themselves  to  the  same  objective  task; 

^ Table  X,  (Appendix  A,  p.  265). 

"  Contributions  to  individual  psychology  show  us  that  individuals  may  vary 
tremendously  in  their  mental  processes,  vid. 

Binet  et  Jassey.  fitude  de  psychologie  sur  les  auteurs  dramatiques.  Annee 
Psych.,  1895,  1 :6o-ii8. 

Binet  et  Henri:  La  psychologie  individuelle.    Annee  Psych.,  1895,  2:411-465. 

Toulouse :  Enquete  medico-psychologique  sur  les  rapports  de  la  superiorite 
inrellectuelle  avec  la  nevropathie.     1896. 

Oehrn :  Experimentelle  Studien  zur  Individualpsychologie.  Psych.  Arbeit- 
en.,  1896,  1 :92-i5i. 

Binet:  L'fitude  experimentale  de  I'lntelligence.     Paris.     1903. 

Sharp :  Individual  psychology :  A  study  in  psychological  method.  Am. 
Jr.  Psych.,  1899,  10:329-391. 

Whitley:  An  empirical  study  of  certain  tests  for  individual  differences. 
Archives  of  Psych.,  1911,  3:  No.  19. 

Also  the  studies  which  attack  directly  the  problem  of  the  Diagnosis  of 
mental  imagery   (like  those  of  Secor,  Segal,  and  Fernald)   or  which  make 


70  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

(b)  the  causes  of  this  variabiHty;  and  (c)  its  effect  upon  the 
scores.  We  might  then  be  able  to  determine  more  precisely 
how  training  affects  the  processes  engaged  in  the  training,  how 
training-effect  aft'ects  the  test-capacities,  and  how  these  facts 
may   be  properly   expressed   in   quantitative   terms. 

To  this  task  of  qualitative  analysis  we  set  ourselves  in  the  fol- 
lowing two  experiments,  and  at  the  risk  of  tedium  we  report  on 
both  test's  and  training  as  fully  as  our  introspective  data  permit. 


1.  Experiment  on  Attention.  (Variability  in  Mental  Processes)/ 


In  order  to  give  greater  opportunity  for  variability  and  for 
functional  relationship  of  processes  to  appear,  it  seemed  desirable 
to  extend  more  than  is  usual  the  variety  of  tests  and  training; 
the  variability  for  the  large  number  of  tests  and  different  kinds 
of  training  could  be  worked  out  in  detail  and  thus  furnish 
a  basis  for  a  critique  of  this  type  of  experiment,  while  functional 
relationship,  at  the  risk  of  not  being  found  at  all,  might  be 
detected  where  it  is  scarcely  expected,  thus  revealing  some  new 
causes  for  general  effect  of  training,  both  positive  and  negative. 

Fortunately  there  is  an  excellent  opportunity  for  organizing 
a  number  of  variously  related  tests  into  this  standard  type  of 
experiment.  In  many  of  the  discussions  psychologists  have  at- 
tributed the  general  effect  of  special  practice,  in  part,  to  training 
in  attention.^^     In  the  want,  as  yet,  of  any  direct  method  of 


an  analytical  inspection  of  the  memory  process  (like  those  of  Kuhlmann, 
Gamble,  Cohn,  Sybel,  Wreschner,  and  Miiller),  as  well  as  the  early  work  in 
which  the  concept  of  "imagery  types"  was  originated  and  developed  (Fechner, 
Galton,  and  Charcot). 

'Performed  during  the  year   1910-1911. 

^  Vid.  Angell,  J.  R. :  The  doctrine  of  formal  discipline  in  the  light  of  the 
principles  of  general  psychology.     Ed.  Rev.,  1908,  36 :8. 

Aall :  in  review  of  Coover  and  Angell.     Zeit.  f .  Psych.,  1908,  48 :303. 

Miiller :  Zur  Analyse  der  Gedachtnistatigkeit  u.d.  Vorstellungsverlauf es. 
Zeits.  f.  Psych.,  1911.  Erg.  Bd.  S.  244.  Ebert  und  Meumann  {op.  cit.  205), 
Fracher  (op.  cit.  95),  Sleight  (op.  cit.  442-3).  Stumpf  (Tonpsychologie, 
1:81). 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  71 

measuring  attention,^^  lies  our  opportunity.  If  attention  can 
be  measured  at  all,^*^  and,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  it  is  often 
practically  gauged  by  casual  observation,  it  seems  reasonable  to 
hope  that  it  can,  it  must  be  measured  by  the  product  of  such 
mental  activities  as  are  known  to  depend  in  the  highest  degree 
upon  the  attentive  state.  Such  activities  are  sensitivity,  sensible 
discrimination,  reproduction,  and  voluntary  activity;^"  and  a 
large  number  of  fairly  standard  tests  are  at  hand  which  may 
be  used  to  measure  them. 

If  we  get  the  initial  capacity  of  a  number  of  reagents  in  a 
number  of  these  tests,  we  may  be  said  to  have  obtained  indirectly 
a  cross-section  of  their  initial  capacity  in  attention.  Then,  if 
special  training  is  given  to  some  of  them,  and  the  tests  are 
given  to  all  of  them  again  for  a  final  measure  of  attention,  our 
experiment  will  conform  to  the  type  usually  employed  in  our 
field  of  investigation. 

Although  we  are  for  the  moment  assuming  that  attention 
is  a  simple  and  uniform  state  of  consciousness,  we  may,  perhaps, 
have  to  recognize  (a)  that  there  are  phases  or  'moments'  of  at- 
tention^^ such  as  degree  of  concentration,  quickness  of  adapta- 
tion, and  duration  of  concentration;  and  (b)  that  individuals 
might  possess  (i)  different  types  of  attention,^^  such  as  broad  or 
narrow  spanned,  alert  or  sluggish,  visual  or  auditory  or  motor, 
or  (2)  different  types  of  consciousness,^*^  such  as  dual  or 
multi-level. 

We  may  then,  provisionally,  call  this  an  experiment  on  atten- 
tion; our  chief  aim  being  to  learn  the  extent  and  causes  of 
variability  in  processes  engaged  in  tests  and  training  of  widely 
different    kinds,    incidentally,    to    trace    through    introspective 


""*  In  1893  Kiilpe  wrote:  "The  discovery  of  a  reliable  measure  of  the  at- 
tention would  appear  to  be  one  of  the  most  important  problems  that  await 
solution  by  the  experimental  psychology  of  the  future."  (Outlines  of  Psy- 
chology. 1901.  Sec.  72-2).  And  in  1908  Titchener  said:  "The  discovery 
has  not  yet  been  made"  (Lectures  on  the  Elementary  psychology  of  feeling 
and  attention.     1908,  p.  276)  which  still  remains  true. 

"""For  present  methods  of  measuring  attention  see  Titchener  (I'fctrf.  276ff), 
and  Pillsbury   (Attention,  ch.  VI.). 

-^  Vid.  Kiilpe :  ol>  cit.  Sec.  73. 

*' Chase:  Some  aspects  of  the  attention  problem.     Fed.  Sem.,  1909,  16:281. 

^  McComas :  Some  types  of  attention.    Fsych.  Rev.  Mon.,  1911,  No.  55:55. 

^^  Geissler :    The  measurement  of  attention.     Am.  Jr.  Fsych.,  1909,  20:473ff. 


^2  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

analysis  the  functional  relationship  between  sets  of  processes 
varying  more  or  less  from  the  training  in  kind,  when  applied 
to  tests  varying  more  or  less  from  the  training  in  material; 
and  in  case  we  get  sufficient  data  which  may  be  justly  compared, 
we  may  be  able  to  determine  whether  improved  attention  is  a 
cause  of  general  effect  of  special  practice. 

a.  The  Tests 

The  following  tests^^  were  chosen  because  of  their  dependence 
upon  attention : 

I.  Reaction 

1.  Simple  sensory  to  sound (50) i 

2.  Compound 

a.  With  discrimination 

( 1 )  Marking  out  small  a's ( 100) 2 

(2)  Marking  out  o's ( 100) 3 

b.  With  discrimination  and  choice 

( 1 )  Card-sorting    (200) 4 

(2)  Typewriter-reaction    (200) 5 

(3)  Controlled  reaction  (50) 6 

II.  Sensible  discrimination  of  sounds (90) 7 

III.  Reproduction 

I.  Unequivocal  (Rote  memory) 

a.  Successive  presentation 

(i)   Memory  of  sound  intensities (50) 8 

(2)  Memory   of   consonants    (50) 9 

(3)  Memory  of  Arabic  numerals (50) 10 

(4)  Memory  of   visual  signs (10) 11 

(5)  Memory  of  associated  pairs (50) 12 

b.  Simultaneous  presentation 

(i)   Learning  12-Ietter-rectangles 

(a)  Free (10) 13 

(b)  With  distraction   (10) 14 

2.  Equivocal — Word-completion (10) 15 

3.  Free — 2-minute   trains    of    ideas (3) 16 

IV.  Extensive  threshold  of  visual  attention 

1.  Free (15) 17 

2.  With  distraction (10) 18 

V.  Maximum  voluntary  activity — tapping  (5  30") 19 

(The  figures  in  parenthesis  indicate  the  number  of  reactions,  memory  units, 
or  experiments,  in  the  test.) 

"•HoviT  these  tests  are  related,  in  method  or  material,  both  to  laboratory 
work  and  to  standard  mental  tests,  is  indicated  by  some  representative  bibli- 
ography given  with  the  discussion  of  Test  Results  (pp.  io6ff.). 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  73 

These  tests  were  taken  by  lo  reagents,  8  of  whom  took  train- 
ing between  the  first  and  final  series  which  were  separated  by 
an  interval  of  55  days.  The  first  series  of  tests  occupied  12 
days  during  a  period  of  36  days;  the  second,  or  final,  10  days 
during  a  period  of  21  days.  Each  pair  of  tests  was  separated 
by  an  interval  of  about  66  days. 

The  pairs  of  tests  were  also  taken  by  two  reagents  of  a  group 
of  21  control  reagents.  There  were  thus  two  sets  of  control 
reagents:  The  two  who  took  all  the  tests,  and  the  21  each 
of  whom  took  only  one  pair  or  a  few  pairs  of  tests. 

The  conditions  of  the  final  tests  were  as  nearly  identical 
with  those  of  the  first  as  circumstances  permitted.  The  material 
was  also  identical  with  the  exception  of  the  Tests  4  and  5,  in 
which  the  orders  of  the  symbols  were  changed  to  avoid  learn- 
ing sequences  of  reactions. 

Of  the  reagents  who  took  training,  7  had  training  in  advanced 
psychological  laboratory  work;  i  had  no  training.  Of  the  first 
group  of  control  reagents  (2),  i  had  training.  Of  the  second 
group  (21),  one  was  taking  elementary  laboratory  work;  the 
others  were  in  a  class  of  general  psychology.  The  students  of 
this  second  group  represented  nine  departments  in  the  university ; 
there  were  two  graduates,  eight  seniors,  five  juniors,  and  six 
sophomores.  On  the  whole  they  ranked  younger  than  the  other 
two  groups. 

b.  The  Training 

During  the  55-day  interval  between  the  tests,  two  reagents 
(Mn.,  Le.)  took  training  18  days  on  Test  17;  25  12-letter-rect- 
angles  were  presented  daily,  making  in  all  450  experiments  each. 
Two  reagents  (Rt.  and  SI.)  took  training  18  days  on  Test  13; 
20  i2-letter-rectangles  were  presented  daily,  aggregating  360 
experiments  each.  One  reagent  (Ly.)  took  training  in  simple 
reaction  to  sound  for  11  days,  iioo  reactions  in  all.  (Le.,  who 
took  training  on  test  17,  also  took  training  in  this  simple 
reaction  to  the  extent  of  about  500  reactions).  Two  reagents 
(He.,  Cr.)  took  training  on  memory  schemes  for  about  14  days. 


74  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

And  one  reagent  (Al.)   took  training  on  Test  17  for  8  days, 
almost  consecutive,  to  the  extent  of  200  experiments. 

In  the  training  as  in  the  tests  introspections  were  written  or 
dictated. 

c.  Apparatus  and  Procedure 
(i)  Reaction  to  Sound 

For  simple  reaction  to  sound,  the  Morse  key  (set  at  a  tension 
of  100  grams,  and  an  amplitude  iat  the  button  of  3  mm.)  was 
released  by  raising  the  index  finger  of  the  right  hand.  The 
reagent  was  instructed  to  lay  the  arm  and  hand  on  the  table 
forming  a  hand-rest  by  folding  in  the  fingers  and  extending  the 
thumb  and  to  give  a  stimulus-direction  to  attention.  No  ap- 
paratus except  the  key  was  visible  to  the  reagent,  the  Wundtian 
sound-hammer^^  for  presenting  the  stimulus  being  located  a 
meter  to  the  right  and  back  of  his  head.  The  whirr  of  the 
chronoscope  could  be  heard  from  the  adjoining  room  and  acted 
as  a  second  signal.  A  "ready"  signal  was  called  at  irregular 
intervals  from  two  to  five  seconds  before  the  stimulus  was 
given.  After  reaction  the  reagent  noted  introspections  and 
called  "ready"  for  the  next  experiment;  he  was  practiced  before 
the  experiment  and  the  first  three  reaction-times  of  the  first 
daily  series,  and  the  first  reaction-time  of  the  other  series,  were 
discarded.  The  Hipp  chronoscope  was  tested  daily  with  a 
fall-hammer^^  and  its  MV.  found  to  be  less  than  1.5  sigma. 
Twenty  valid  reactions  were  taken  on  the  first  day;  30  on  the 
second. 

For  each  series  of  10  reactions  were  found  the  (a)  arithme- 
tical mean,  (b)  probable  error,  (c)  standard  deviation,  (d)  PE 
of  the  standard  deviation,  and  (e)  coefficient  of  variation,^^  be- 
sides the  (f)  MV,  and  the  (g)  relative  variation.^^  These 
were  averaged  for  the  five  series  of  the  test.  Inspection  showed, 
however,   that  owing  to   the   increased   sensitiveness   of   those 

"Illustrated  in  Wundt :  Grundziige  der  Psysiol.  Psych  (5  te  Auf.),  111:503. 

'^  Illustrated,  ibid.,  S.  397. 

**Vid.  Titchener:  Experimental  Psych.,  Vol.  II,  Pt.  II,  p.  361. 

^  Vid.  ibid.  Pt.  I,  p.  181.  r.v.=MV.xioo/M. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  75 

measures  which  rest  upon  the  square  of  the  deviations  from  the 
mean,  over  the  MV.  and  the  r.v.,  for  occasional  large  deviations 
(yet  not  sufficiently  large  to  discard),^"  the  former  possessed 
no  advantage  over  the  latter  which  alone  were  consequently 
retained. 

(2)  Marking  Out  as 

The  reagent  was  instructed  to  mark  out  all  the  small  a's  be- 
tween the  pen  marks  across  a  printed  page.  The  material 
consisted  of  page  12  of  Horace  Davis'  Phi  Beta  Kappa  address 
on  Vocational  Training,  delivered  at  Stanford  University,  May  8, 
1909.  Between  lines  2  and  30,  inclusive,  there  are  100  small 
o's.  The  page  was  placed  before  the  reagent  right  side  up, 
covered  with  a  screen  which  was  removed  at  the  moment  the 
stop-watch  was  started  for  timing  the  test.  Introspections  were 
written  after  the  test. 

The  Efficiency  Index  was  computed  according  to  Whipple's 
formula.^''^  Since  no  letters  were  wrongly  crossed  out,  the 
Efficiency  Index  became  the  "time  per  100  reactions." 

(3)  Marking  Out  o's 

Page  13  of  the  same  material  as  above  was  used  for  marking 
out  small  o's,  of  which  there  are  100  between  lines  i  and  30  in- 
clusive. The  page  was  placed  before  the  reagent  inverted. 
Further  procedure  as  above. 

Tests  2.  and  3.  were  taken  in  a  single  sitting. 

(4)   Card-Sorting 

A  Jastrow^^  cabinet  of  six  compartments,  and  four  packs  of 
50  cards  (6  x8.5  cm.)  were  used  for  card-sorting.  The  cards 
were  not  glazed  but  were  smooth  and  fairly  stiff.  In  a  central 
position  at  one  end  they  bore  a    printed    device    (14    mm.    in 

^  Times  with  deviations  greater  than  4xMV.  were  discarded. 

"Whipple's  Manual  (ist  ed.).  26of.  Er=T/A,  A=c-w/c+o,  where  T=:time, 
A=accuracy,  c=letters  crossed  out,  w^letters  wrongly  crossed,  o=a's  omitted. 

**Jastrow:  A  sorting  apparatus  for  the  study  of  reaction  times.  Psych. 
Rev.,  1898,  5  :279ff. 


76  JOHN  EDGAR  C DOVER 

diameter ),^^  chosen  with  the  design  of  prohibiting  verbal  classi- 
fication, which  was  turned  thru  o°,  90°,  135°,  180°,  270°,  and 
315°,  to  make  the  six  classes  of  cards  to  be  discriminated.  The 
labels  on  the  compartments  were  so  arranged  as  to  avoid  easy 
classification.  After  reading  typewritten  instructions'*^  the 
reagent  took  a  standing  position  at  the  cabinet,  informed  the  ex- 
perimenter that  he  was  ready,  and  started  with  the  experimenter's 
signal  "go."  The  time  of  each  pack  was  taken  with  a  stop-watch. 
Introspections  were  written  after  each  pack.  Two  packs  were 
sorted  on  one  day,  the  remaining  two  on  another. 

Efficiency  consisted  of  the  average  time  for  the  four  packs  in 
each  test.  The  errors  were  very  few  and  were  fairly  constant 
in  each  reagent's  work. 

( 5  )   Typewriter-Reaction 

Reactions  were  made  with  the  first  two  fingers  of  the  two  hands 
to  the  four  letters  a,  t,  e,  n,  as  they  appeared  automatically  through 
a  screen  on  the  (Blickensderfer)  typewriter.  Reaction  to  one 
letter  brought  the  next  into  view.  The  four  series  were  com- 
posed of  50  letters  each,  so  arranged  that  each  letter  preceded 
and  succeeded  itself  and  each  other  about  equally  often.*^ 
Opportunity  was  given  for  writing  introspections  after  the 
2d  and  4th  series.  The  typewriter  was  connected  in  circuit 
with  a  marker  which  recorded  the  reactions,  upon  a  smoked 
drum,  beside  a  synchronous  seconds-record  furnished  electrically 
by  the  laboratory  clock. 

Efficiency  was  calculated  from  the  kymograph  records  in 
seconds  per  series  of  50  reactions.  The  average  of  the  four 
records  constituted  the  score  of  the  test.  Accuracy  was  checked 
by  the  record  of  reactions  made  by  the  typewriter,  and  since 
it  was  found  to  be  uniformly  high,  it  was  not  used  to  modify 
the  time-score.^-  The  four  series  of  reactions  were  taken  at  a 
single  sitting. 

^'See  Appendix  B,  Figs,  i  and  2  (p.  288)  for  reproduction  of  device  and 
arrangement  of  compartments  in  cabinet. 

"*  Appendix  B,  Fig.  3  (p.  288). 

"Appendix  B,  Fig.  4  (p.  289). 

^*  No  reagent  made  more  than  3  errors ;  the  general  average  was  1.6  per 
series. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  77 

(6)     Controlled  Reaction 

Reaction  was  made  with  the  first  two  fingers  of  the  left 
hand  the  first  three  of  the  right  hand  on  the  typewriter.  The 
respective  fingers  represented,  from  left  to  right,  Poets,  Phil- 
osophers, Statesmen,  Scientists,  and  Musicians.  Ten  familiar 
names  of  each  class'*^  were  arranged  into  lo  favorable  series*'* 
and  were  pronounced  singly ^''.  Time  was  taken  with  a  stop- 
watch which  was  selected  from  a  collection  of  lo  for  its  favor- 
able action.  A  day  or  two  before  the  experiment  the  complete 
list  of  names  was  read  by  classes  to  the  reagent  to  determine 
whether  any  were  unfamiliar,  and,  if  so,  to  learn  them;  and 
before  the  experiment  he  was  drilled  upon  the  class-finger 
coordinations  until  he  was  sure  that  he  knew  them.  Introspec- 
tions were  written  after  the  fifth  and  the  last  series.  After  the 
test,  free  reactions  were  taken  to  one-,  two-,  and  three-syllabled 
names,  in  which  all  the  five  fingers  were  used,  not  in  regular 
order,  to  determine  how  much  variation  in  time  might  be  owing 
to  length  of  name.^^'     The  test  was  taken  in  a  single  sitting. 

Efficiency  was  calculated  in  terms  of  time  alone;  the  mean 
of  the  50  reaction-times,  and  the  mean  for  each  class, 

(7)   Sound  Discrimination 

Nine  intervals  of  intensity"*^  (including  D— o)  were  given 
with  a  Wundtian  sound-pendulum.*'^  The  upper  and  lower 
intervals  could  almost  always  be  clearly  cognized.  The  time 
interval  between  norm  and  variable  was  about  three  seconds, 
between  pairs   about   12   seconds,   and   between   series  of   nine 

**  Appendix  B,  Fig.  5  (p.  289). 

^Appendix  B,  Fig.  6  (p.  289). 

^'With  one  exception:  Cr.  reacted  as  rapidly  as  possible  to  each  half  of  the 
10  series,  which  was  presented  simultaneously  to  his  vision. 

"'  The  general  averages  for  all  reagents  were :  .69,  .JZ,  .81 ;  making  a 
difference  of  0.12"  between  the  shortest  and  longest  names.  Since  the  long 
names  were  distributed  throughout  all  series,  no  reference  to  this  is  made  in 
the  discussion  of  results. 

**  Appendix  B,  Fig.  7a  (p.  290). 

"Illustrated  in  Wundt:  Grundziige  d.  Physiol.  Psych,  I:Sii.  Ours  is  the 
single  pendulum  type. 


78  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

judgments  2.5  minutes.  Ten  series^^  constituted  the  test. 
Procedure  was  without  knowledge  and  by  the  method  of  Right 
and  Wrong  cases.  The  reagent  sat  facing  dark  screens,  with 
his  back  to  the  sound-pendulum  which  was  about  5  meters 
distant;  he  recorded  his  judgment  upon  the  intensity  of  the 
second  sound  (always  the  variable)  by  the  use  of  symbols^^ 
signifying  "greater,"  "less,"  "like,"  and  "doubtful."  Intro- 
spections were  reached  between  series  and  after  the  test  all  of 
which  occupied  the  hour. 

Efficiency  was  calculated  in  terms  of  Right  judgments  and 
the  'Difference  Limen.' 

(8)  Memory  of  Sounds 

Five  series^"  of  10  sounds  each  were  constructed  with  four 
easily  distinguishable  sounds  (relative  intensities:  0.12,  0.8,  2,1, 
5.)^^  produced  on  the  sound  pendulum.  Members  of  a  series 
succeeded  each  other  at  the  rate  of  one  second;  an  interval  of 
2.5  minutes  was  given  between  series.  The  reagent  sat  5  meters 
from  the  sound-pendulum  with  his  back  toward  it,  and  recorded 
the  sounds  in  terms  of  i,  2,  3,  4,  in  the  order  of  their  intensity. 
He  was  familiar  with  the  sounds  of  the  instrument  since  this 
test  followed  the  test  on  Sensible  discrimination,  and  in  a  pre- 
liminary practice  he  was  drilled  until  he  could  name  instantly 
any  of  the  sounds  produced  in  irregular  order.  The  reagents 
recorded  in  ruled  forms ;  and  wrote  introspections  between  series 
and  after  the  test.^^ 

Efficiency  was  calculated  with  Spearman's  "Footrule  for 
scoring  the  memory  test."^^ 

**  Appendix  B,  Fig.  7b,  (p.  290). 

*' Appendix  B,  Fig.  8,  (p.  290). 

°*  Appendix  B,  Fig.  9,  (p.  290). 

^^From  Fechner:     Psychophysik.,  I.  S.  181. 

"^  This  holds  true  for  all  the  succeeding  tests  on  memory. 

'^Whipple's  Manual  (ist  ed.),  p.  367.  d 

R  = which    gives    a   perfect 

(n^-i)/3 
score  of  i ;  the  score  of  a  correctly  placed  letter  in  a  series  of  10  =  0.1. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  79 

(9)  Memory  of  Consonants 

The  consonants  were  printed  by  hand  in  capitals  (12-14  "^"i- 
in  height,  strokes  5  mm.  in  breadth)  and  were  clearly  seen  from 
the  station  of  the  reagent  5m.  distant.  The  light  entered  the 
room  through  northern  windows  behind  and  above  the  reagents, 
and  the  Jastrow  tachistoscope^*  was  surrounded  by  black  screens 
which  concealed  the  experimenter  and  his  manipulation  of  the 
apparatus.  The  test  was  composed  of  5  series  of  10  letters.^^ 
The  letters  were  presented  at  the  rate  of  one  second,  the  series 
at  the  rate  of  two  minutes. 

Spearman's  "Foot-rule"  was  used  for  scoring. 

(10)  Memory  of  Numerals 

The  procedure  was  the  same  as  above  except  that  digits^^  were 
presented  instead  of  consonants. 

(11)  Memory  of  Visual  Signs 

Procedure  was  the  same  as  in  No.  9  except  that  meaningless 

optical  signs^'^    (suggested  by  and  similar  to  those   illustrated 

by  Stratton)^^  were  used  instead  of  consonants,  and  the  test 

consisted  of  a  single  series.    The  reagent  reproduced  by  drawing. 

(12)  Memory  of  Associated  Pairs 
The  letters  of  No.  9  and  the  digits  of  No.  10  were  presented 
in  pairs^^  at  the  rate  of  a  pair  a  second,  with  the  Jastrow 
tachistoscope ;  after  an  interval  of  60  seconds  the  series  of 
letters  was  shown  at  the  rate  of  a  letter  in  three  seconds  during 
which  time  the  reagent  was  required  to  record  the  digit  asso- 
ciated with  the  letter.  The  five  series  were  separated  by 
intervals  of  2.5  minutes.  The  reagents  were  especially  instructed 
to  depend  upon  association  alone  for  reproduction. 

The  scoring  was  made  on  the  basis  of  o.  i  points  for  each 
correctly  recorded  digit. 

Tests  No.  8  to  No.   12  were  usually  given  in  two  sittings. 

"Illustrated  in  Whipple's  Manual  (ist  ed.),  p.  365. 

■^Appendix  B,  Fig.   loa   (p.  290). 

°*  Appendix  B,  Fig.  lob  (p.  290). 

''''Appendix  B,  Fig.   11    (p.  291). 

°'  Stratton :  Experimental  psychology  and  its  bearing  upon  culture,  p.  29. 

•^  Appendix  B,  Fig.   loc    (p.  290). 


8o  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

(13-14)     Learning  12-Consonant-Rectangles 

Through  a  tachistoscope  of  the  Wundtian  type^^  rectangular 
cards  (10.2  x  15.3  cm.)  bearing  three  horizontal  rows  of  4  con- 
sonants were  exposed.  The  letters  were  printed  in  black  ink 
with  rubber  type  (21  mm.  high),  broad  Roman  rather  than 
Gothic  in  style®^  (lightest  strokes  were  1.5  mm.;  broadest  4mm. 
in  width).  The  disposition  of  the  reagents  and  apparatus,  the 
condition  of  the  light,  etc.,  were  the  same  as  in  the  preceding 
memory  tests.  The  letters  were  clear  and  distinct  from  the 
reagent's  position.  The  time  of  the  exposure  was  10  seconds. 
It  was  preceded  by  a  pre-signal,  "Get  ready  for  No. — ,"  given 
7  seconds,  and  a  signal  "ready"  given  2  seconds  before  the 
screen  was  removed;  it  was  succeeded  by  a  free  interval  of 
10  seconds  which  was  terminated  by  the  signal  "Now,"  when 
the  reagents  recorded  in  ruled  forms.  The  test  consisted  of 
10  experiments,  which  came  at  the  rate  of  2.5  minutes.  Intro- 
spections were  written  between  experiments  and  after  the  test. 

In  the  test  with  distraction,  the  reagents  were  required  to 
add  eight  digits  called  out  by  the  experimenter  at  the  rate  of 
one  a  second,  during  the  10''  interval  after  the  exposure,  and  to 
record  the  sum  before  beginning  to  record  the  letters. 

Records  were  scored  according  to  the  following  values  for 
a  reproduced  letter :  2  points  for  the  correct  line,  i  point  for  the 
correct  column,  making  3  points  for  a  correctly  placed  letter. ^^ 

Tests  No.  13,  and  14  were  given  in  a  single  sitting. 

(15)    Word-Completion 
The  reagent  was  furnished  ruled  paper,  and  a  blotter  to  use 
as  a  screen.     Then  three  separate  columns  of  10  consonants^^ 

*"  Illustrated  in  Wundt :  Grundziige  der  physiologischen  Psychologic  (ste 
Auf.)  1902,  Bd.  III.,  S.  334. 

•^Appendix  B,  Fig.  12,  (p.  291). 

**  Although  this  method  is  not  satisfactory,  and  Cohn  (op.  cit.  S.  i6iff.)  and 
Segal  {op.  cit.  S.  136)  justly  claim  that  errors  demand  separate  treatment, 
if  a  single  score  is  to  be  derived  for  a  measure  of  reproduction,  some  arbitrary 
method  must  be  accepted  and  this  one  combines  favorable  features  in  the 
methods  of  Winch  (Br.  Jr.  Psych.,  1:129)  and  Smith  (Mind,  N.S.  5:52). 
See  Appendix  C,   (p.  295). 

*^  Appendix  B,  Fig.  13,  (p.  291). 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  8i 

each  were  dictated  to  him  which  he  recorded  and  covered  with 
his  screen,  leaving  a  space  of  about  4  cm.  between  the  columns. 
He  was  then  told  that  under  his  screen  were  ten  lines  of  three 
letters  each,  and  that  upon  signal  he  was  required  to  remove 
his  screen  and  to  fill  in  letters  anywhere  in  order  to  complete 
a  word  on  each  line.  Time  was  taken  with  a  stop-watch.  In 
case  the  ten  words  were  not  completed  within  5  minutes,  the 
unfinished  work  was  taken, 

(16)   Trains  of  Ideas 

Reagents  were  instructed  to  begin  immediately  from  the 
stimulus-word  and  write  by  word  or  phrase  as  many  ideas  as 
possible  within  the  two  minutes  allowed  them.  Three  stimulus 
words  were  given:  horse,  potato,  flute.  Connections  were  then 
explained  and  the  ideas  counted. 

Tests  No.  15,  and  16  were  usually  given  in  the  same  sitting 
with  No.  2  and  3. 

(17-18)  Extensive  Threshold  of  Visual  Attention 

The  same  apparatus  and  like  material  and  procedure  as  in  No. 
13  were  used  except  the  exposure  was  about  o.i  seconds  (0.085"'), 
the  free  interval  between  exposure  and  reproduction  was  5 
seconds,  and  the  rate  of  experiments  was  two  minutes.  The  whole 
card  fell  within  the  angle  of  acute  vision. 

In  the  test  with  distraction  the  5"'  interval  after  the  presenta- 
tion of  the  card  was  used  by  the  reagent  for  adding  4  digits 
pronounced  at  the  rate  of  one  a  second.  The  sum  was  recorded 
before  the  letters. 

Tests  17  and  18  were  taken  within  the  hour. 

(19)   Tapping 

The  reagent  tapped  five  series  of  30"'  each,  with  intervening 
rests  of  2.5  minutes.  He  used  his  right  hand  in  a  manner 
chosen  after  a  preliminary  practice;  he  was  instructed  to  keep 
his  method  constant  and  to  tap  as  rapidly  as  possible.  The 
Morse  key  was  sent  at  a  tension  of  50  grams,  and  an  amplitude 
(at  the  button)  of  i  mm.  (approximately  the  adjustment  pre- 
ferred by  telegraph  operators).     Records  of  the  tapping  were 


82  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

taken  on  a  kymograph  beside  a  seconds-line  furnished  by  the 
laboratory  clock. 

The  kymograph  records  were  scored  from  the  time-line  and 
the  taps  counted  for  every  interval  of  5  seconds.  Total 
efficiency  was  found  by  the  average  of  the  taps  per  series  of  30 
seconds;  the  "Fatigue  Index"  was  derived  by  dividing  the 
average  of  the  last  five  intervals  of  the  first  series  by  the  num- 
ber of  taps  in  the  first  interval.  All  procedure  was  according 
to  Wells^*  except  in  the  use  of  the  right  hand  only. 

d.  The  Training  Results 

According  to  the  design  of  our  investigation  our  chief  con- 
cern is  with  analyses  of  processes,  their  changes  during  training, 
and  the  factors  responsible  for  improvement.  The  amount  of 
improvement  in  training,  the  probability  of  the  attainment  of 
maximal  efficiency,  what  general  conditions  correlate  with  poor 
and  good  daily  averages,  and  what  special  causes  of  variability 
aflfected   the   scores,   are   also   noticed. 

(i)  Extensive  Threshold  of  Visual  Attention 

These  tachistoscopic  practices  consisted  of  25  i/io-second 
exposures  per  day  of  cards  (4"x6'')  bearing  12  capital  con- 
sonants (21mm.  high)  (See  Appendix  B.  Fig.  12,  p.  291) 
printed  with  rubber  stamps  evenly  in  three  rows.  Reagents  sat 
5  m.  distant ;  experimenter  was  concealed  behind  the  apparatus 
which  was  screened  in  black.  The  record  of  the  reagent  was 
made  in  a  ruled  form  and  was  begun  five  seconds  after  the 
exposure  was  made;  in  scoring,  a  letter  was  evaluated  three 
points  if  correctly  placed,  two  points  if  misplaced  in  the  line, 
one  point  if  it  appeared  anywhere  else.  Experiments  took  place 
at  the  rate  of  i  1/2  minutes.  Introspections  followed  each 
experiment. 

Three  reagents,  Mn.,  Le.,  and  Al.,  took  the  training,  the  first 
two  upon  three  days  of  the  week,  the  latter  upon  successive 
days,  at  the  same  hour  of  the  day,  and  under  as  nearly  constant 

"Wells:   Normal  performance  in  the  tapping  test.     Am.  Jr.  Psych.,   1908, 
I9:437ff. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  83 

conditions  as  possible.  The  extent  of  the  training  was  re- 
spectively 18,  18,  and  8,  days;  and  the  gain  over  the  first  day's 
average  was  respectively,  29%,  26%,  and  29%. 

The  practice-curves  indicate  that  maximal  efficiency  had 
probably  not  been  reached  (vid.  Appendix  B.  Fig.  14,  p.  291). 

The  day's  work  was  not  long  enough  to  produce  fatigue. 
Days  of  poor  scores  were  days  of  poor  control  of  attention, 
of  discouragement,  of  thinking  that  maximum  efficiency  had 
been  attained,  of  being  bored  by  the  experiment.  Days  of 
good  scores  were  days  of  good  attention,  and  the  best  days 
usually  came  after  a  week-end  or  a  short  vacation. 

The  process  varies  considerably,  even  during  a  sitting,  and, 
although  many  of  the  factors  of  variability  will  be  found  in 
the  following  descriptions  of  changes  in  processes  during  train- 
ing, some  of  them  may  be  noticed  here. 

The  degree  of  attention  may  vary  from  'slack'  to  "wide-eyed 
and  breathless"  (Al.).  The  presentation  may  occur  just  before, 
at,  or  just  after,  the  crest  of  the  rhythm  of  attention.  The  ex- 
tent of  attention  may  be  confined  to  a  few  letters,  when  they 
will  be  clear  and  the  rest  of  the  card  may  not  be  seen  at  all 
(Mn.  2:  24);  or  it  may  cover  the  whole  card  in  which  case 
all  imagery  may  be  so  vague  as  to  effect  a  blank  score, 
(Mn.  2:  13).  In  the  intermediate  cases  the  attitude  toward  the 
more  vague  content  determines  whether  the  interval  after  per- 
ception is  given  to  rote  repetition  of  the  'clear'  letters  or  is 
given  in  part  to  'maturing'  vague  letters.  Variability  arises  in 
the  effort  to  coordinate  the  latter  two  processes. 

The  material  for  any  reagent  is  not  uniform :  Some  letters, 
such  as  form  familiar  initials  or  abbreviations,  are  'significant' 
and  may  challenge  apperceptive  elaboration  at  the  sacrifice  of 
further  perception,  (Mn.  6:  11)  ;  or  they  may  prove  more  facile 
in  apprehension  and  more  ready  for  recall,  (Le.  15  :  16).  Some 
letters  are  more  difficult  to  name  (Le.  2:16,  11:8)  and  some 
groups  are  particularly  non-euphonious  ( Mn.  S'-  ?)• 

Among  other  subtle  causes  of  variation  may  be  mentioned 
an  inducted  effect  through  rapport  between  the  experimenter 
and  reagent,  of  the  experimenter's  variable  state  of  alertness. 


84  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

During  Mn.'s  nth  and  Le.'s  12th  day  the  experimenter  inten- 
tionally varied  the  manner  in  which  he  gave  the  two  signals 
("Ready  for  No. — ,"  given  seven  seconds  before,  and  "Ready," 
given  two  seconds  before  each  exposure)  according  to  three 
types,  (a)  sharp,  alert,  (b)  indifferent,  (c)  low,  decisive.  The 
averages  of  both  reagents  were  lowest  for  the  'indifferent' 
type;  Mn.  averaged  highest  for  the  'sharp,'  and  Le.  for  the 
'low,  decisive'  type.  The  experimenter  chose  the  last  type  and 
was  thereafter  careful  to  keep  his  own  condition  of  attention 
more  constant. 

Since  introspections,  under  the  limitation  of  time,  could  not 
be  complete,  and  the  respective  reagents  differed  in  their  selec- 
tion of  factors,  the  manner  in  which  processes  changed  through 
the  training  will  be  noted  for  each  of  the  three  reagents 
separately. 

Mn.,  during  the  habituation  period  of  the  first  few  days, 
changed  from  visual  to  a  kinaesthetic  retention  because  of  the 
higher  reproductive  value  of  the  latter.  Only  letters  repeated 
by  name  were  readily  reproducible,  and  the  period  of  exposure 
or  the  entertainment  of  the  after-image  was  so  brief  as  to 
limit  naming  to  but  a  few  letters:  "I  seemed  to  have  the  time 
in  this  case  to  repeat  the  (4)  letters.  I  can  remember  the 
letters  more  readily  by  this  process,  but  usually  the  time  does 
not  seem  long  enough  for  this"  (ist  day,  3d  experiment). 

At  the  beginning,  when  scores  were  relatively  low,  attention 
was  usually  confined  to  the  first  line,  or  to  a  part  of  it,  often 
leaving  all  the  rest  of  the  card  unnoticed:  ("All  the  (4)  letters 
were  clear,  but  I  didn't  seem  to  see  the  rest  of  the  card,"  (2  :24)  ) . 
At  this  time  a  whole  line  produced  a  good  score,  but  when  the 
score  was  to  become  larger,  the  extent  of  the  attention  had  to 
be  increased,  and  consequently  its  direction  changed.  This 
change  was  facilitated  by  occasional  good  scores  from  relatively 
indistinct  impressions  resulting  from  chance  failure  to  direct 
attention  (i:  10);  but  a  too  diffuse  attention  was  checked  by 
an  occasional  blank  score  due  to  the  imagery  being  too  vague: 
"Attention  on  the  whole  card — can't  recall  a  letter,"  (2:13). 
Attention  by  the  7th  day  came  to  be  directed  upon  some  other 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  85 

than  the  top  Hne  (7:3),  and  by  the  12th  day,  since  it  was 
found  that  scattered  letters  appeared  most  frequently  above 
those  in  clearest  vision,  the  lower  part  of  the  card  was  chosen, 
the  3d  line  being  favored :  "Find  I  cannot  do  well  at  the  middle 
line,"  (12:  16).  But  these  conscious  changes  in  method  corre- 
spond to  'rests'  in  the  practice-curve,  and  were  not  for  any 
length  of  time  strictly  adhered  to. 

Not  only  did  the  spread  of  attention  now  include  letters  that 
at  first  could  not  be  seen,  but  visual  imagery  was  required  to 
reproduce  the  additional  letters,  since  the  interval  was  taken 
up  by  the  verbal  repetition  (13:7,15:3).  This  coordination 
of  the  two  kinds  of  imagery  holding  their  respective  content 
was  not  at  first  very  good  and  never  did  become  efficient;  the 
letters  held  in  the  visual  imagery  were  prone  to  escape  before 
they  could  be  recorded  (3,7:17,15:5)  although  they  some- 
times returned  (5:  14). 

Associations  of  letters  with  familiar  abbreviations,  initials, 
names,  words,  etc.  were  not  much  used.  Introspection  notes  no 
more  than  one  case  (2  or  3  letters)  on  each  of  the  following 
days:  2,  6,  12,  13,  14,  15,  16.  But  the  last  two  days  they 
promised  to  become  prominent;  on  the  17th  11  letters  were 
reproduced  from  them,  and  on  the  i8th  "15  letters.  During 
these  days  they  merely  supplanted  verbal  repetition  of  letter- 
names  and  did  not  contribute  to  the  larger  scores.  But  had 
training  continued,  they  probably  would  have  been  coordinated 
with  the  verbal  and  visual  imagery  to  the  end  of  fixing  more 
of  the  impression  before  it  got  away. 

The  attitude  toward  the  vague  impressions  changed  and  un- 
doubtedly contributed  toward  the  rise  in  the  curve.  It  was 
not  until  the  second  day  that  the  five-second  free  interval  before 
recording  was  used  in  part  for  developing  or  defining  impres- 
sions ;  it  was  customarily  used  in  merely  repeating  the  names 
of  the  letters  that  had  been  clearly  seen.  On  the  3d  day  vague 
imagery  began  to  yield  letters :  "The  first  two  letters  were  very 
distinct,  but  I  do  not  know  how  I  saw  the  last  ones :  When 
I  was  recording  them,  I  felt  them  rather  than  had  an  image," 
(3:1);  "During  the  interval  I  tried  to  recall  the  letters;  and 


86  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

those  recorded  are  the  letters  that  came,  although  I  have  no 
visual  image  to  prove  that  they  are  correct"  (3:6).  But  on 
the  5th  day  uncertified  material  was  accepted  with  caution: 
"J  (a  clear  letter)  always  seems  associated  with  L  for  some 
reason,  and  the  L  forced  itself  [properly]  into  the  record" 
(5 :  20).  By  the  9th  day,  however,  this  material  was  regularly 
given  a  chance,  which  was  almost  always  warranted  by  the 
score.     The  following  will  show  the  character  of  the  material: 

7 :  8  "The  impression  of  the  three  letters  seemed  very  indis- 
tinct, but  during  the  interval  they  seemed  to  take  a  definite 
form." 

8:6  "P  was  particularly  clear;  I  do  not  know  how  I  got  S 
for  I  cannot  remember  seeing  it  especially." 

9:18"!  remember  only  seeing  V,  but  during  the  interval 
the  rest  of  the  line  (3  letters)  was  completed." 

10:6  "When  I  repeated  the  letters,  K  and  Z  were  the  only 
decided  ones;  but  during  the  interval  the  others  seemed  to  fall 
into  place   (2  letters)." 

11:4  "L  and  T  were  the  only  letters  that  were  distinct. 
The  others  seemed  to  fall  into  place  during  the  interval." 

12:8  "I  do  not  think  I  saw  the  last  two  letters,  but  in 
some  way  they  came  to  my  mind  during  the  interval  while  I 
was  repeating  the  others," 

14:  10  "I  did  not  see  the  D  as  the  third  letter,  but  something 
put  it  there  during  the  interval." 

15:3  'T  am  not  sure  what  the  third  letter  was.  When  I 
repeated  them  I  could  get  no  sound  in  the  third  space;  but 
visually  it  seemed  to  be  F,  although  it  does  not  seem  to  fit 
when  I  repeat  them."  (The  first,  second  and  fourth  letters 
were  clear.  The  third  is  often  omitted  by  this  reagent,  and 
indeed  also  by  others. ) 

16:5  "I  had  no  idea  of  the  third  letter.  K  came  when  I 
repeated  them,  so  I  recorded  it."    (Correct). 

16:  II  "C  came  as  a  feeling;  seemed  to  see  a  rounded  form." 
(Correct). 

17:8  "I  got  a  vague  idea  of  a  number  of  letters,  but  R 
was  the  only  clear  one :"  4  others  were  correctly  recalled  and  a 
P  recorded  in  error  for  a  B. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  87 

That  this  material  was  related  to  vague  visual  impression 
was  indicated  by  an  occasional  error:  "C  and  N  came  during 
the  interval;  N  was  especially  insistent,"  (14:24).  (Wrong— 
the  two  letters  were  G  and  V;  similar  forms). 

There  is  a  fairly  good  correspondence  between  a  favorable 
attitude  toward  the  indefinite  impressions  and  the  rise  in  the 
curve.  Improvement  was  largely  due  to  the  development  of 
vague  unrecognized  material  into  correctly  recorded  letters.®^ 
While  this  development  was  in  progress  there  were  some  ten- 
dencies working  against  good  scores :  Lines  distinctly  seen  some- 
times failed  to  mature  into  letters,  (8:25),  and  sometimes 
letters  plainly  seen  failed  to  be  named  and  could  not  be  recalled 

(7:i7)- 
Certain  peculiarities  of  the  individual  consciousness  or  of  the 

process  had  some  effect  upon  the  scores:   Among  them  are:  (a) 

the  unfavorable  effect  of  favorite  or  significant  letters  (M,  X, 

C,  Q,)  (6 :  1 1,  7 :  9,  10 :  20,  4:6),  through  narrowing  conscious- 

""The  "maturing"  of  a  latent  or  subliminal  impression,  in  tachistoscopic 
experimentation,  has  been  observed  by  others : 

The  distinction  between  the  "recalled"  and  the  "means"  of  recalling,  insisted 
upon  by  Cohn  (Beitrage  zur  Kenntniss  der  individuellen  Verschiedenheiten  des 
Gedachtnisses.  Dritter  Internationaller  Kongress  fur  Psychologie,  in  Miinchen, 
1896:456-458),  involves  a  maturing  of  imagery;  he  says  that  the  retained 
letter  may  be  a  visual  image  while  the  means  to  its  recollection  is  an  involun- 
tary image  in  an  abstract  connection  (p.  457).  and  that  when  it  is  schematic, 
or  incomplete,  it  often  "matures"  (erganzt  sich)  through  reflection. 

Hylan  (The  distribution  of  attention.  Psych.  Rev.  1903,  10:398)  found  that 
"a  special  effort  to  recognize  an  indistinct  character  would  frequently  cause  it 
to  mature  into  complete  recognition  before  others  which  were  at  first  more 
distinct,"  and  that  sometimes  the  indistinct  letter  would  "come  floating  into 
the  mind  as  an  afterthought  when  all  had  been  given  that  could  at  first  be  re- 
membered." The  impression  of  letters  exposed  serially  (rapidly)  could  be 
held  an  appreciable  length  of  time  without  recognizing  a  singk  letter,  until  each 
was  recognized  one  at  a  time. 

Bergstrom  (Effect  of  changes  in  the  time  variables  in  memorizing,  together 
with  some  discussion  of  the  technique  of  memory  experimentation.  Am.  Jr. 
Psych.  1907,  18:236)  found  that  the  rapid  displacement  of  one  impression  by 
the  next  interferes  greatly  with  the  memorizing,  and  inferred  that  an  uncon- 
scious organizing  process  (apperceiving  or  fixing)  continues  some  time  after 
the  impression  has  been  received,  which  is  necessary  for  its  permanence  and 
revivability. 


88  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

ness  to  them  alone;  (b)  the  persistence  of  impressions  from 
former  experiments;  (c)  the  difficuhy  of  cognizing  letters  of 
similar  form,  or  of  naming  and  of  reproducing  non-euphonious 
groups  of  letters,  (3:7);  and  (d)  the  shifting  of  letters  to  fill 
a  space  occupied  by  an  unseen  intermediate  (usually  the  third) 
letter.  The  last  was  largely  corrected  during  the  training 
through  increased  power  to  develop  letters  from  obscure 
imagery. 

The  facts  that  the  coordination  of  the  two  kinds  of  imagery 
(visual  and  kinaesthetic)  was  not  yet  perfected;  that  the  co- 
ordination of  associations  with  the  imagery  was  just  on  the 
point  of  beginning ;  and  that  the  coordination  of  the  reproducing 
and  the  recording  processes  was  still  defective,  supports  the 
objective  indication  of  the  practice-curve  that  training  had  not 
yet  reached  maximum  efficiency. 

Le,  changed  direction  of  attention  from  the  first  line,  when 
increasing  score  demanded  more  than  four  letters,  to  the  middle 
line  (7th  day),  and  then  to  the  blank  space  just  above  the  middle 
line  (13th  day).  These  changes  were  made  on  the  basis  of  the 
adequacy  of  chance  variations  from  the  usual  method.  Extent 
of  attention  changed  from  the  first  two  letters  of  the  first  line 
to  four;  then  this  tendency  to  limit  the  range  to  clear  impres- 
sions changed  to  include  impressions  of  various  lower  grades 
of  clearness.  Intensity  of  attention  varied  from  day  to  day 
and  from  experiment  to  experiment,  but  effort  was  made  to 
keep  it  at  maximum:  "Find  that  fair  (as  distinguished  from 
good)  attention  makes  considerable  difference;  I  see  the  card 
as  well,  but  the  letters  are  less  clear,  and  fewer  are  noted"; 
and  good  scores  are  correlated  with  introspective  report  of  good 
attention. 

Although  extent  and  intensity  of  attention,  or  distribution 
and  clearness,  are  supposed  to  vary  inversely,  there  was  during 
the  training  a  development  of  the  field  of  maximal  clearness 
as  well  as  the  lower  levels  of  clearness ;  and  there  was  a  gradual 
transition  from  a  one-level  to  at  least  a  clearly  eight-level  or 
multi-level  clearness  of  tachistoscopic  impressions;  the  table 
below,  which  is  made  from  introspective  data,  will  illustrate: 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE 


89 


Table  showing  eight-level  clearness 

The  figures  in  the  table  represent  the  number  of  letters  re- 
produced from  a  single  exposure.  The  figures  in  the  first  line 
stand  for  the  following  headings: 

I.  Day  and  Experiment     4.  Fair 

5.  A  little  vague 

6.  Vague 


2.  Very  clear 

3.  Clear 


7.  Strongly    suggested 

8.  Suggested 

9.  Unrecognized    content 


1:3 
1:5 
3:12 

14:2 

14:5 
14:16 

14  .-24 

15:2 

16:2 

16:3 

16:21 

17:2 

18:9 

18:11 

18:13 


In  this  selection  of  introspections  it  is  seen  that  each  con- 
secutive level  is  distinguished  from  one  or  more  other  levels 
in  some  individual  experiment. 

The  fringe  material  gives  rise  to  imagery  all  the  way  from 
(a)  no  recognition  to  (b)  visual  recall,  recognition,  and  re- 
production of  letters  in  their  proper  places;  that  is,  apart  from 
gradual  extension  of  some  degree  of  clearness  into  its  field, 
there  is  on  the  van  of  this  conquest  an  occasional  'maturing' 
of  its  material  into  correctly  recorded  letters : 

"Had  idea  of  other  lines  but  not  enough  for  recognition." 

"Had  strong  idea  of  other  lines  but  not  enough  for  recog- 
nition." 

"Had  idea  of  other  letters  but  could  not  recall." 

"Saw  lines  but  couldn't  recognize  letters." 

"Saw  whole  line  and  noted  others  as  containing  letters — in 
past  experiments  when  one  line  was  seen  nothing  of  other 
lines  was  noted." 

"Other  lines  noted,   a  little  vague   to   recall." 

"Other  letters  noticed,  almost  recognized." 

"Saw  no  letter  clearly;  all  suggested  by  lines  and  made  defi- 


90  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

nite  by  repeating  during  the  interval;  not  sure  of  any."  (Good 
score). 

"Saw  lines,  later  recognized  K." 

"Partly  seen  and  later  recognized  as  S." 

"In  interval  named  letters  in  line  but  did  not  decide  that  I 
had  seen  R  (a  fifth  letter)  until  after  recording  line;  then  had 
vague  visual  image  of  R."  "Added  C  after  v^riting  line,  from 
image." 

"Image  not  determined  until  after  line  was  recorded." 

Again,  the  suggestion  may  be  definite  without  recognizing 
any  material  as  imaged;  "No  image,  letter  came  with  feeling 
of  familiarity." 

The  way  in  which  the  boundary  of  clearness  is  extended  into 
the  territory  of  the  unrecognizable,  may  be  illustrated  by  the 
advance  beyond  the  capacity  of  the  eleventh  day  to  apprehend 
clearly  the  four  letters  in  the  line  fixated : 

"Idea  of  other  lines,  but  not  enough  for  recognition." 

"Stronger  idea  of  other  lines;  not  enough  for  recognition." 

"Line  clear,  extra  letter  a  little  vague." 

"Line  clear,   extra  letter  clear." 

"Line  clear,   two  extra   letters   vague." 

"Line  clear,  two  extra  letters  clear." 

At  first  the  extra  letter  comes  as  a  maturing  visual  image, 
vaguely,  then  more  clearly ;  then  it  is  clear  enough  to  be  named 
and  fixed  kinaesthetically  with  the  others. 

In  the  very  first  experiments  Le.  held  her  visual  image  during 
the  5-second  interval  after  which  she  named  and  recorded  the 
letters.  Then  she  named  the  letters  during  the  exposure,  re- 
taining by  repetition  and  recording  from  kinaesthetic  imagery, 
occasionally  receiving  an  extra  letter  from  visual  imagery  later. 
But  by  the  6th  day  she  gave  up  the  moment  of  exposure  to 
the  vivid  life  of  the  after-image,  to  "Einpragung,"  and  named 
the  letters  in  the  interval  afterward;  "Named  from  image  one 
by  one  as  would  from  card,  but  slowly."  She  customarily 
recorded  from  kinaesthetic  imagery.  During  this  "Einpragung" 
she  'felt'  clear  letters  in  her  mouth,  the  vague  letters,  suggested 
by  lines,  being  named  for  recognition  afterward.  If  letters  were 
not  so  clear,  or  formed  non-euphonious  groups  the  names  were 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  91 

repeated  two  or  three  times  during  the  interval.  The  visual 
image  of  an  outlying  letter  sometimes  escaped  during  the  pro- 
cess of  naming  the  others;  and  when  the  letter  was  recalled 
more  vividly  for  retention  during  the  naming  of  the  others 
the  latter  became  doubtful  owing  to  faulty  coordination  of  the 
two  processes. 

Certain  peculiarities  of  the  reagent's  process  affected  the 
score :  ( I )  She  often,  especially  in  dull  mental  condition,  found 
it  difficult  to  name  the  letters  (2:11,  13,  14,  15);  sometimes 
she  was  balked  for  several  seconds  (4:15,  5:11,  8:7);  and 
sometimes  she  would  make  the  best  of  the  situation  by  miscall- 
ing: "Called  Q  'H',  holding  a  (corrective)  visual  image  of  Q," 
(4:  19).  This  difficulty  was  more  prone  to  occur  when  Q,  Y, 
or  Z  began  the  line  fixated  (11:8).  An  effect  of  the  difficulty 
in  naming  was  to  confuse  the  order  (5:8),  in  which  case  the 
letters  were  named  in  trial  orders  until  the  reagent  was  satisfied 
by  a  feeling  of  familiarity   (4:  11). 

(2)  Certain  combinations  of  letters  flashed  into  significant 
groups  which  at  first  challenged  attention  to  the  exclusion  of 
further  perception,  but  later  served  readier  apprehension;  such 
were  the  initials  of  friends,  silver-ware  marks,  etc. :  J  B,  J  D, 
TM,  SK,  LK,  TB  (Tuberculosis),  SF  (San  Francisco),  etc. 
W  M  were  noticed  to  be  similar  in  construction. 

(3)  All  through  the  training  there  was  occasional  self-con- 
sciousness in  fixating  (11:18)  resulting  in  (a)  more  or  less 
irregular  phenomena,  such  as  winking,  shifting,  or  squinting 
the  eyes,  just  at  the  moment  of  exposure,  and  (b)  eye  fatigue 
and  strain  (11 :  19,  14:  17). 

Al.  used  an  essentially  different  method  from  the  others;  he 
endeavored  to  get  the  whole  presentation,  inhibiting  the  ten- 
dency to  limit  the  area  of  attention  to  a  smaller  and  clearer 
field. 

From  the  'fringe'  levels,  letters  appeared  often  through 
kinaesthetic-auditory  imagery  and  were  correctly  recorded  al- 
though they  were  not  remembered  as  seen;  they  often  matured 
in  visual  imagery,  generally  with  doubtful  position;  and  often 


02  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

letters  insinuated  themselves  correctly  into  the  record  because 
they  "seem  to  belong  there,"  neither  'cue'  nor  verifying  imagery 
being  accessible  to  consciousness.  Perhaps  the  general  method 
of  attending  intensely  to  the  whole  card  favored  'fringe' 
phenomena. 

The  fixing  of  letters  during  exposure,  or  w^hile  the  after- 
image persisted,  vv^as  effected  by  naming  the  letters;  and  kinaes- 
thetic  imagery  was  the  customary  'cue'  for  reproducing  and 
recording;  sometimes  the  imagery  was  supported  by  visual 
imagery,  and  sometimes  additional  letters  were  visually  repro- 
duced and  converted  into  kinaesthetic  before  recording. 

Sometimes  a  "curious  rivalry"  between  the  two  kinds  of 
imagery  occurred  with  respect  to  what  letter  belonged  to  a 
certain  position,  in  which  case  records  customarily  followed  the 
stronger  kinaesthetic-auditory.  But  in  some  cases  the  position 
was  medial  between  the  two  letters.  Again,  a  kinaesthetic-au- 
ditory C  was  corrected  visually  to  Z.  Certain  assimilative  effects 
evidently  resulted  from  the  rivalry  of  the  imagery :  J  seems  G 
when  the  latter  was  just  diagonally  below  it.  Again,  this 
assimilative  effect  may  involve  only  visual  factors :  M  seems  X 
when  the  latter  was  just  above  it. 

Mnemonics  were  avoided  and  very  few  associations  involun- 
tarily occurred. 

Development  consisted  in  more  adequate  control  of  the  atten- 
tion during  (a)  apprehension,  (b)  fixing,  and  (c)  reproducing 
periods,  (a)  On  the  second  day  the  reagent  recorded,  "Have 
learned  to  regard  the  card  as  a  whole;  distinguish  many  more 
letters  than  at  first,  but  cannot  fix  them;"  and  of  the  letters 
distinctly  seen,  three  introspections  of  the  second,  third,  and 
sixth  day's  record:  "Saw  more  letters  distinctly  than  ever  be- 
fore," "Saw  more  letters,  say  six,"  "Saw  more  letters,  say 
eight  or  nine."  Particularly  for  the  earlier  part  of  the  training, 
apprehension  in  its  advance  far  out-distanced  fixing  and  repro- 
duction, (b)  More  visual  images  were  named  and  fixed,  and 
(c)  in  reproduction  the  reagent  ceased  to  distrust  insistent,  but 
not  perceived,  letters,  as  persisting  from  some  former  apprehen- 
sion, and  became  willing  to  give  them  a  chance  in  the  score. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  93 

Many  letters,  no  doubt,  through  this  change  of  attitude  toward 
the  'fringe,'  'matured,'  as  is  indicated  above  in  connection  with 
attention;  at  any  rate  the  scores  generally  justified  the  record. 

Further  and  more  direct  evidence  of  the  more  efficient  control 
of  the  attention,  noticeable  through  lack  of  strain,  is  given  in  an 
introspection  on  the  7th  day :  "Attention  as  usual,  'open-eyed,' 
to  take  in  whole  card,  but  not  breathless  as  formerly." 

Al.'s  maximum  daily  average  occurred  on  the  3d  day  (see 
Curve,  Appendix  B.  Fig.  14,  p.  291),  and  the  question  arises 
as  to  whether  all  the  improvement  of  his  training  was  made 
during  the  first  three  days  of  work,  and  therefore  likely  to  lie 
in  an  habituation  which  lacks  the  general  character  requisite 
for  transference.  If  there  was  further  improvement  it  was 
such  as  failed  to  affect  the  scores.  Were  the  same  question 
to  be  put  concerning  Mn.'s  training  for  the  same  length  of  time 
(8  days)  the  same  hypothetical  conclusion  would  result,  for  the 
first  daily  average  to  exceed  her  third  was  the  ninth.  Yet  in 
the  face  of  the  gradual  ascent  of  her  practice  curve  up  to  the 
1 8th  day,  the  probability  of  improvement  on  the  days  between 
the  3d  and  the  9th  can  scarcely  be  denied. 

In  what  then  would  Al.'s  improvement  beyond  the  3d  day 
consist? 

Tabulation  of  letters  recorded  as  doubtful  indicates  that  the 
averages  of  the  days  following  the  3d  were  made  up  more 
largely  of  'fringe'  letters  and  less  clear  letters;  if  we  express 
in  per  cent  of  the  average  scores  the  amount  contributed  by 
'fringe'  letters  during  the  course  of  training,  we  get:  for  the 
1st  and  2d  days,  8% ;  3d  and  4th  days,  4.4%  ;  5th  and  6th  days, 
20%;   7th   and   8th   days,    17%. 

The  averages  from  which  we  have  inferred  corresponding 
capacity  therefore  represent,  in  part,  disparate  processes.  And 
since  the  conquest  of  the  'fringe'  content  in  consciousness  was 
seen  to  be  an  essential  part  of  progress  in  the  cases  of  Mn. 
and  Le.  and  since  it  has  been  taking  place  with  Al.  since  the 
3d  day,  it  seems  more  than  probable  that  improvement  has  con- 
tinued throughout  the  training.  This  view  is  strengthened  by 
the  introspective  notes  clearly  indicating  increase  of  sensitivity. 


94  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

and  by  the  experience,  common  to  all  reagents,  of  confusion 
in  reproduction  of  the  distinct  content  through  effort  to  mature 
further  'fringe'  content.  Advance  has  been  made  in  appre- 
hension; training  had  not  continued  long  enough  to  coordinate 
the  part-processes  sufficiently  for  reproduction  to  show  the  gain. 

For  all  of  the  reagents  the  effect  of  training  was  in  the  follow- 
ing points  the  same:  (For  Al.,  omit  a,  d,  f,  h)  : 

(a)  More  letters  were  clearly  seen, 

(b)  More  letters  were  distinctly  seen  in  less  clear  imagery, 

(c)  More  'fringe'  material  developed  into  letters, 

(d)  There  was  more  efficient  cooperation  of  kinaesthetic  and 
visual  imagery  for  the  purpose  of  recall, 

(e)  There  was  less  variability  of  attention, 

(f)  There  was  more  adequate  distribution  of  the  attention 
to  the  part-elements  of  the  process, 

(g)  There  was  greater  ease,  less  strain,  in  perception,  re- 
tention and  reproduction, 

(h)  There  was  more  apperceptive  and  associative  process  in 
apprehension  of  letters,  serving  a  fuller  content  and  surer  recall. 

(2)  Learning  12-letter-Rectangles 

Rt.  and  SI.  gained  upon  their  first  day's  average  53%  and 
42%,  respectively,  during  their  18  days  of  training.  Maximal 
efficiency  had  not  yet  been  reached  (see  practice  curves.  Ap- 
pendix B.  Fig.  15,  p.  292).  The  daily  work  was  not  sufficient 
to  show  the  influence  of  fatigue. 

Days  of  low  scores  were :  after  Easter  vacation,  when  efficient 
coordination  of  part-processes  had  to  be  built  up  again,  for 
there  was  a  reversion  to  earlier  processes;  and  days  of  poor 
attention. 

Rt.  began  learning  regularly  with  the  first  line  and  proceeded 
as  in  reading.  He  got  a  strong  visual  impression  and  converted 
it  into  kinaesthetic-auditory  imagery  for  retention  and  reproduc- 
tion, repeating  it  during  the  lo-second  interval.  Upon  the  first 
day  he  began  to  convert  the  stimulus  immediately  into  kinaes- 
thetic-auditory imagery  without  reinforcing  the  visual  impres- 
sion, and  when  visual  imagery  of  letters  revived  after  they  were 
retained  and  reproduced  by  the  Kin.-aud.  imagery,  it  was  deemed 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  95 

a  hindrance.  In  case  some  letters  were  held  visually  after  the 
screen  had  fallen  they  too  were  named  and  included  in  the 
repetition  of  kinaesthetic-auditory  imagery.  But  when  such  a 
visually  held  letter  was  remote,  in  the  third  line,  it  was  retained 
visually  while  repeating  the  other  letters  in  kinaesthetic-auditory 
imagery  (which  by  the  end  of  the  first  day  decreased  in  its 
auditory  support)  and  was  converted  only  upon  recording.  Up 
to  near  the  end  of  the  2d  day  the  few  associations  that  occurred 
were  also  deemed  a  hindrance,  for  the  letters  were,  like  the 
earlier  visual  letters,  retained  kinaesthetically :  "Associations 
annoy  me."  But  in  a  few  experiments  an  association  came 
in  a  convenient  place,  after  six  kinaesthetically  retained  letters, 
and  its  letters  were  not  repeated  during  the  interval  but  were 
recorded  from  the  visually  held  association.  This  is,  in  brief, 
the  way  in  which  visual  imagery  in  direct  form,  and  association, 
grew  into  value  as  supplementary  devices  to  the  kinaesthetic  rote 
method  of  learning,  the  coordination  of  which  played  so  great 
a  role  in  raising  scores  as  training  proceeded. 

The  first  appearance  of  the  developed  method  was  on  the 
2d  day  (i6th  experiment)  when  the  first  six  letters  were  held 
kinaesthetically,  the  next  two  by  associations  (CP,  chemically 
pure),  and  the  next  two  visually;  only  the  first  six  letters  being 
repeated  by  rote  during  the  lo-second  interval  before  recording. 
In  the  first  experiment  of  the  4th  day  this  method  recurred, 
the  association  being  LB  (pound).  But  it  took  the  training 
of  the  4th,  5th,  and  6th  days  to  make  this  the  predominant 
method,  which  with  favorable  modifications  gained  in  elasticity 
and  value  until  the  maximum  scores  were  made. 

During  the  period  of  emergence  of  this  method,  of  the  three- 
fold content,  a  two- fold  content  was  dominant  (see  Analysis 
Curves,  Appendix  B.  Fig.  16,  p.  292).  After  the  third  day 
it  was  a  rare  score  that  contained  only  kinaesthetically  held 
letters,  although  12  out  of  the  3d  day's  20  were  such.  The 
independent  visual  images  of  letters  were  held  side  by  side 
with  the  kinaesthetic,  except  that  the  kinaesthetic  were  being 
constantly  repeated  during  the  free  interval,  while  the  visual 
persisted   from   the   first   reinforced   impression.      During   this 


96  JOHN  EDGAR  C DOVER 

development  of  the  coordination  of  the  two  processes  of  reten- 
tion and  recall,  a  secondary  visual  imagery  emerged,  weaker 
than  the  other  and  often  accompanied  by  doubt  as  to  its  value. 
It  was  imagery  persisting  apparently  in  its  own  strength,  not 
having  been  reinforced  during  perception;  and  it  often  came 
late, — after  all  other  letters  had  been  recorded. 

It  was  this  last  kind  of  visual  imagery,  strengthened  and  made 
more  reproducible  through  training,  which  later  became  avail- 
able when  associations  could  not  be  readily  formed,  to  prevent 
the  learning  process  from  lapsing  into  the  early  two-fold  form. 
Under  favorable  conditions  six  letters  were  as  many  as  could 
be  safely  held  kinaesthetically,  and  four  visually  (primary), 
which  would  give  a  score  of  30  points,  and  some  of  the  daily 
scores  exceeded  this.  Since  coordination  of  the  three-fold  pro- 
cess involving  associations,  which  became  dominant  on  the  7th 
day,  had  resulted  in  carrying  out  the  two-fold  process,  in  ex- 
periments in  which  associations  were  not  found,  before  the 
interval  of  exposure  closed,  time  for  strengthening  the  secondary 
visual  imagery  was  provided. 

In  successful  work  therefore,  the  process  became  at  least 
three-fold.  On  the  lOth  day  a  four-fold  process  appeared  several 
times,  (letters  held  in  kinaesthetic  imagery,  visual  associations, 
primary  reinforced  visual  imagery,  and  secondary  visual 
imagery). 

The  general  method  became  elastic  in  recognizing  favorable 
associations  in  other  positions  than  in  the  two  spaces  following 
the  6th,  to  which  they  had  heretofore  been  confined;  i.e.,  the 
six  letters  to  be  learned  by  rote  changed  from  the  first  six  to 
any  not  available  for  associations.  Three  times  on  the  i6th 
day  associations  fixed  the  first  two  letters,  and  through  the 
later  period  of  practice  all  spaces  presented  favorable 
associations. 

The  character  of  the  associations  seems  to  be  largely  visual; 
the  stimulus  yielding  a  word  in  visual  form.  It  seems  doubtful 
if  many  are  accompanied  by  meaning,  or  at  least  if  the  meaning 
is  prominent  as  it  would  be  if  the  associations  were  apperceptive ; 
the  reagent  calls  them  "visual"   associations  throuo:hout. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  97 

Letters  held  in  each  kind  of  imagery  sometimes  escaped,  and 
occasionally   returned   later   in   time    for   recording. 

The  method  of  recording  passed  through  a  development.  At 
first  it  followed  the  order  of  the  letters  on  the  card.  Later, 
the  visual  imagery,  vi^hich  under  low  conditions  of  attention 
faded  rapidly,  was  recorded  first,  then  the  kinaesthetic,  then 
associations,  and  last  the  secondary  visual.  The  order  of  re- 
cording followed  the  increasing  reproductivity  of  the  material, 
except  for  the  secondary  visual  imagery. 

Some  variable  influences  upon  the  score  were  apparent: 

(i)   If  attention  was  not  good, 

(a)  Naming  for  kinaesthetic  images  was  retarded, 

(b)  Visual  imagery  was  weak,  and 

(c)  Possible  associations  escaped  notice; 

(d)  All  imagery,  especially  visual,  faded  rapidly,  and  some- 

times escaped  during  the  interval. 

(e)  In  recording,  some  of  the  imagery  escaped,  and  the 

order  of  the  letters  recorded  was  confused. 

(2)  Some  material  was  harder  than  others  to  pronounce  and 

retarded  the  process. 

(3)  Unusual    associations,    especially    at    first,    retarded    the 

process. 

(4)  Since  forming  associations  became  a  prominent  motive 

in  the  method,  material  difficult  to  associate  decreased, 
and  material  furnishing  easy  associations  increased  the 
score. 
Improvement  seems  to  consist  in 

(a)  Higher  sensitivity   for  the  visual  material,   since  the 

secondary  visual  images  developed,   and  moreover, 
into  two  grades  of  clearness. 

(b)  Higher  reproductivity  of  letter-names. 

(c)  Coordinating  kinaesthetic  and  visual  processes,  so  as 

to  develop  from  a  two-fold  to  a  four-fold  content. 

(d)  Greater  facility  in  forming  visual  associations. 

(e)  Greater  facility  in  apportioning  the  letters  on  the  card 

to  the  appropriate  part-processes. 

(f)  Better  coordination  of  the  recording  process  with  the 

retaining  process. 

(g)  Better  method  in  recording  with  respect  to  the  vivid- 

ness of  part-contents. 


98  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

(h)   Possibly  an  increase  in  liability  of  reproduction  of  all 

imagery, 
(i)   Decrease  in  variability. 

SI.  began  learning  by  repeating  the  letters  on  the  card  in 
reading  order.  Upon  the  first  day  he  attempted  to  visualize 
the  lower  row,  middle  row,  or  the  top  row,  while  he  repeated 
by  rote  the  other  two  rows  which  he  intended  to  hold 
kinaesthetically ;  occasionally  he  sought  by  tense  staring  while 
naming  to  have  visual  imagery  support  the  kinaesthetic.  In 
the  15th  experiment  of  that  day  he  hit  upon  an  association: 
BRQM  (Laxative  Bromo  Quinine)  and  recorded  LBRQ,  and 
noted  in  his  introspections  that  "It  probably  did  not  help  me 
to   remember." 

The  next  day  he  tried  to  fix  all  the  letters  by  naming,  and 
found  it  too  much,  losing,  in  that  experiment,  all  but  one  line. 
He  then  began  his  later  method  by  confining  his  rote  mem- 
orizing (Kinaesthetic)  to  the  eight  letters  of  the  first  two  lines 
and  held  as  much  as  possible  of  the  third  in  visual  imagery. 
In  a  few  cases  the  kinaesthetic  imagery  of  the  first  two  lines 
was  supported  by  associations:  JPN  (Japan)  and  BHSR 
(Belshazzar)  ;  and  again  WMBR  (Wamba). 

Upon  the  3d  day  his  visual  imagery  of  the  third  row  was 
assisted  by  associations  (Z,  last  letter  of  the  alphabet,  and  J 
his  initial).  Thus  appeared  the  alternate  form  of  his  method. 
But  it  was  not  yet  a  conscious  method,  and  was  not  much  used 
until  the  9th  day  from  which  time  it  was  used  to  fix  about  as 
many  letters  in  the  third  line  as  were  reproduced  visually.  "Can 
repeat  only  names  of  first  two  rows  so  as  to  remember  them; 
either  have  mnemonic  for  third  row  or  visualize."  A  curious 
thing  appears  to  have  occurred  during  its  emergence  at  that 
time,  which  seems  rather  an  eflfect  than  a  cause  of  its  use.  The 
visual  imagery  used  during  the  preceding  four  days  seemed  to 
change  to  what  was  called  in  the  discussion  of  Rt.'s  results  a 
'secondary'  form  {i.e.,  not  reinforced  during  perception)  or 
an  apperceptive  form  involving  alphabetic  position,  which  re- 
lated it  to  a  class  of  the  associations  available  and  used  at  first 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  99 

particularly  for  X  and  Z,  as  is  shown  by  the  prevalence  of 
substitutions  of  near-lying  letters,  as  H  for  J  or  K.  The  reagent 
repeatedly  said  he  did  not  visualize,  neither  did  he  repeat,  nor 
did  he  form  those  letters  into  associations — he  ''just  remem- 
bered them."  "Last  letters  written  in  lower  row  are  remembered 
by  gazing  steadily  at  them  and  names  are  not  pronounced 
neither  are  they  visualized."  He  also  records  some  letters  from 
this  field  which  he  cannot  account  for:  these  are  what  I  have 
called  the  'secondary'  visual  form,  when  they  came  in  the  visual 
mode.  Apparently  one  cause  for  this  change  in  the  character 
of  his  visual  imagery  is  that  as  he  gazes  at  them  he  is  not  so 
much  intent  upon  sharp  visualization  as  upon  seeking  mnemonic 
devices  to  fix  them. 

Up  to  this  time  he  had  made  three  perfect  scores  by  holding 
the  lower  row  in  visual  imagery.  From  now  on,  all  his  perfect 
scores  (22)  with  one  exception  were  assisted  by  associations, 
the  first  three  occurring  on  the  9th  day. 

The  following  table  shows  the  relative  use  of  his  three  kinds 
of  retention  for  the  third  row,  the  'visualized'  and  the  'secondary' 
visual  letters  combined : 

Day  No.  of  letters  recorded  from  each 

Kin. 

1  4 

2  2 
3 
4 

5  5 

6 

7 
8 

9  9 

10 
II 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 

17 
18 


Vis. 

Ass'ns 

I 

0 

3 

I 

II 

2 

7 

8 

22 

6 

10 

4 

28 

0 

18 

8 

9 

18 

18 

17 

29 

17 

15 

17 

10 

18 

12 

8 

20 

32 

34 

II 

16 

32 

14 

34 

lOO  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

By  the  ninth  day  his  method  was  to  gaze  at  the  3d  row  during 
the  exposure  seeking  a  mnemonic  association  or  visuahzing 
while  he  was  repeating  by  rote  the  eight  letters  above  held  in 
peripheral  vision. 

Conflict  between  the  visual  and  kinaesthetic  processes  en- 
couraged the  search  for  mnemonic  aids.  His  visual  imagery 
was  very  unstable  and  vanished  upon  slight  provocation.  If  it 
was  to  persist,  it  had  to  be  made  as  vivid  as  possible  during 
the  impression;  but  that  took  attention  from  the  rote  process 
with  the  result  of  losing  some  of  the  kinaesthetic  letters,  or  of 
losing  the  rhythm  and  sequence,  which  led  to  transposed  letters 
in  the  record;  then  again,  if  effort  was  put  disproportionately 
upon  the  kinaesthetic  process,  the  lower  row  would  be  lost. 

The  associations  were  not  used  advantageously  above  the  3d 
line;  in  fact  they  were  disturbing  there.  They  often  resulted 
in  substitutions  of  other  letters,  indicating  that  the  form  of 
association  was  not  visual,  as  in  the  case  of  Rt.,  but  more 
apperceptive.  Sometimes  they  were  of  a  complex  nature :  MDKS 
was  held  by  "M.D.,  Mark  Keppel,  Snell;"  ZGJX,  "between 
special  letters  ZX,  George  Jones."  Sometimes  letters  in  a  well 
known  combination  would  be  absorbed  in  another  more  special 
but  earlier  one:  PBDV  gave  Peabody,  although  since  the  com- 
bination had  occurred  before,  "deo  volente"  had  been  common 
for  DV. 

The  visual  imagery  of  letters  seemed  to  be  more  easily  held 
if  they  were  accompanied  by  associated  letters,  and  the  process 
was  often  thus  a  three-part  process :  Kinaesthetic  for  8  letters, 
associative  for  2,  visual  for  2. 

A  peculiarity  of  Sl.'s  imagery  was  that  as  long  as  he  held 
his  eyes  on  the  screen,  after  the  exposure,  the  letters  remained 
there;  but  as  soon  as  he  glanced  down  to  the  paper,  they  either 
vanished  or  took  a  position  on  his  forehead  where  they  were 
very  unstable  and  were  apt  to  escape  while  he  was  recording 
the  kinaesthetic  letters.     It  took  special  effort  to  retain  them. 

His  other  imagery  was  also  quite  unstable,  for  any  inner 
distraction  was  fatal  to  it;  upon  one  occasion  he  began  record- 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  loi 

ing  with  the  wrong  letter  and  ahnost  lost  the  whole  score. 
He  tried  to  hold  the  imagery  by  keeping  his  body  rigidly  in 
the  same  position.     Recording  was  an  especial  distraction. 

A  development  of  the  kinaesthetic  process  took  place:  At 
first  he  merely  named  letters  "in  his  mind,"  then  in  a  whisper, 
finally  with  very  slight  throat  and  tongue  movement.  The  first 
was  not  vivid  enough  and  the  second  was  too  slow. 

The  variable  influences  upon  the  score  recorded  in  the  dis- 
cussion of  Rt.'s  training  were  present  here  also;  except  that 
No.  3  may  be  omitted  and  No.  4  made  applicable  to  the  3d  line 
only. 

Improvement  seems  to  consist  in 

(a)  Coordination    of    visual,    kinaesthetic,    and    associative 

processes. 

(b)  Using  incipient  pronunciation  with  rote  process. 

(c)  Better  apperception  of  visual  images. 

(d)  Coordinating  the   recording  and   retention  processes. 

(e)  Making  association  a  method. 

(f)  Decrease  of  variability. 

It  does  not  seem  that  sensitivity  to  visual  imagery,  or  that 
reproductivity  except  as  better  effected  through  (b),  was  in- 
creased; and  the  method  remained  fairly  mechanical. 

(3)  Reaction  to  Sound 

Ly.  did  not  greatly  reduce  her  reaction  time  by  her  training 
of  II  days,  100  reactions  per  day,   (1.4%). 

That  there  was  a  change  in  the  process  is  indicated  by  the 
character  of  the  practice  curve :  There  was  a  drop  down  to  the 
6th  day,  showing  at  that  point  over  initial  capacity  a  gain  of 
19% ;  but  from  then  on  there  was  a  gradual  rise  to  almost 
initial  efficiency. 

If  the  ten  reactions  each  of  the  27  series,  on  the  100-gram 
tension  of  the  key,  are  distributed  and  plotted  (5  sigma  to  the 
plot)  in  three  distribution  curves  of  90  cases  each  (correspond- 
ing curves,  with  10  sigma  to  the  plot,  are  shown  in  Appendix  B., 
Fig.  18,  p.  294),  it  is  seen  that  the  motor  reactions  with  times 
around  100  sigma  have  fallen  away,  after  the  middle  period; 


I02  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

that  the  highest  mode  has  shifted  from  158  in  the  first  period 
to  178  in  the  middle  and  last  periods;  that  the  chief  block  of 
reactions  which  came,  in  the  first,  between  130  and  170  sigma, 
has  broadened  in  the  middle  to  180;  and  that  the  last  curve  is 
cut  by  a  cleft  at  the  point  where  the  first  has  the  highest  mode, 
giving  rise  to  two  blocks:  130-155,  160-195.  The  median  has 
moved  from  159  to  160  and  165. 

The  introspections  throughout  are  headed  "Sensorial";  at 
the  same  time,  individual  introspections  note  pressures,  strains, 
and  tensions  in  the  fingers,  hand  and  arm,  and  premonitory 
reactions  indicate  a  motor  direction  of  attention.  Although  the 
introspections  are  not  full  enough  to  determine  definitely,  yet 
there  is  some  evidence  that  the  process  of  reaction  became  less 
motor  as  practice  continued,  after  the  sixth  day.  It  may  be 
that  as  training  proceeded  the  sensorial  form  was  more  nearly 
approached,  yet  the  first  considerable  mode  of  the  first  curve, 
from  130-145,  continued  and  broadened  toward  longer  time, 
in  the  middle  curve,  has  split  in  the  last  curve  with  the  narrower 
mode  at  130-135  and  the  broader  at  140-155,  whereas  the 
former  mode  of  130-135  would  seem  to  be  the  place  for  a 
practiced  sensory  time.  The  widening  of  this  mode  in  the 
second  curve,  and  the  growth  of  a  wide  mode  from  140-150 
in  the  last,  seem  to  indicate  the  development  of  factors  in  the 
process  of  reaction  which  (a)  shifted  most  of  the  'sensorial' 
reactions  to  140-150,  and  (b)  gave  rise  to  a  more  frequent 
type  of  reaction  at  160-195,  where  the  last  curve  has  its  largest 
block  of  reactions  and  the  first  curve  is  most  serrated.  Intro- 
spections do  not  make  clear  what  those  factors  are;  but  they 
must  be  such  as  cause  reactions  to  fall  central  upon  148  and 
178  sigma. 

The  process  at  the  beginning  of  practice  was  sometimes  pure 
motor  (90-110  sigma),  often  sensori-motor  (i  10-120),  very 
often  sensory  (130-140),  and  more  often  a  complicated  sensory 
(145-165).  During  training,  the  motor  disappeared,  the  sensori- 
motor diminished,  and  the  practiced  sensory  narrowed  (130- 
135),  the  sensory   (135-150)   became  more   frequent,  and  the 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  103 

complicated  sensory  (160-195)  most  frequent.  This  develop- 
ment into  longer  time  conforms  with  Bergemann's  results  on 
influence  of  practice  on  sensorial  time.^^ 

There  was  a  decrease  in  variability,  which  is  usually  taken 
to  indicate  improvement  in  attention,  but  it  is  still  large  (MV., 
13%),  about  S%  above  practiced  form  (8%  of  the  mean). 

(4)  Memory  Training 

He.  and  Cr.  tested  mnemonic  devices  for  memory  of  figures, 
dates  of   events,   and  lists   of   words. 

■  Although  the  modern^'''  systems  of  mnemonics  have  the  ad- 
vantage of  the  older^^  in  that  they  rely  upon  the  congruence 
rather  than  the  incongruence  of  the  supplied  mnemonic  word 
or  phrase,  they  are  open  to  two  chief  criticisms:  (a)  They  add 
to  the  material  to  be  memorized,  and  (b)  the  supplied  mnemonic 
is  likely  to  be  replaced  by  a  false  one  (He.  lost  the  key-word 
"pass-key"  in  the  mnemonic  for  Homer,  by  substituting  "latch- 
key", which  changed  the  date  from  907  to  567).  The  chief 
advantage  of  mnemonics  appears  to  lie  in  the  better  apperception 
of  the  data  to  be  remembered,  by  reason  of  subjecting  them  to 
especial  attention  in  order  to  determine  that  they  are  correctly 
represented  in  the  key-word  of  the  mnemonic.  Since  the 
natural  relations  in  the  data  are  obviously  the  more  profitable 
to  be  scrutinized,  the  advantages  outweigh  the  disadvantages, 
if  anywhere,  only  in  the  learning  of  dates,  telephone  numbers, 
street  numbers,  or  other  disconnected  numbers. 

That  great  advantage  is  gained  by  inspecting  and  grouping 
numbers,  not  for  the  purpose  of  transposing  them  into  mnemonic 
phrases,  but  for  noting  the  relations  subsisting  between  the  re- 
spective groups,  was  shown  by  the  correct  reproduction  of  series 
of  24  digits  after  grouping  them  into  three's  and  inspecting 
them  just  once. 

"Wundt:    Physiologische  Psychologic,  III:42i,  (ste  Auf.). 

''E.g.,  Harvard  College — Teach  much — t-ch-m-ch — 1636.  {Vid.  James: 
Briefer  Course  in  Psycholog>-,  p.  74;  or  Prin.  of  Psychology,  vol.  I,  p.  669). 

'^  E.g.,  Xenophon — a-zang-for-fun  might  do  damage  with  matches — m-tch-s 
—360. 


I04  JOHN  EDGAR  C DOVER 

The  principal  object  of  the  training,  however,  lay  in  the  repe- 
tition of  lists  of  words,  in  conformance  with  Loisette's^^  in- 
structions for  the  training  of  attention  by  "compelling  the 
intellect  into  some  particular  channel  and  keeping  it  there,"  "by 
compelling  the  intellect  to  stay  with  the  senses,"  through 
analysis  of  connections  between  words  in  a  series  and  frequent 
rapid  repetition  with  full  concentration.  He  claimed  to  have 
made  weak  memories  strong,  and  good  ones  better,  by  this 
method. 

The  method  involved  (a)  an  attentive  apprehension  (auditory 
or  visual)  of  a  list  of  words,  having  a  more  or  less  obvious 
sequence,  with  the  view  of  noting  the  relations  between  each 
two  words,  and  (b)  an  immediate  recall  of  the  whole  list  after 
the  single  apprehension.  Later,  on  succeeding  days,  the  lists 
were  to  be  repeated  orally  from  memory,  forwards  and  back- 
wards, as  rapidly  as  possible,  recalling  clearly  the  relations 
between  the  words.  Notes  were  taken  of  the  time  and  errors. 
The  reagents  set  for  themselves  three  subsidiary  aims:  (a) 
to  determine  the  advantage  of  scrutinizing  the  relations  between 
the  successive  words,  for  reproduction  after  a  single  impres- 
sion, (b)  to  learn  whether  the  initial  stability  of  the  particular 
connections  remains  relatively  the  same  in  successive  repro- 
ductions, and  (c)  to  learn  if  the  liability^*^  of  recall  remains 
the  same  in  successive  reproductions,  as  shown  by  the  time  to 
reproduce  the  series. 

The  second  list  of  30  words  began  with :  Building,  dwelling- 
house,  parlor,  partridge,  feathers,  light,  lighterman;  the  rela- 
tions between  the  words  are :  genus  and  species,  species  and 
genus,  whole  and  part,  partial  identity  in  sound,  whole  and  part, 
substance  and  attribute,  partial  identity  in  sound.  The  list  was 
dictated  to  He.  by  Cr.  at  the  rate  of  one  word  per  second,  and 
was  reproduced  orally  by  He.  in  160  sec.  and  by  Cr.  in  58  sec. 
Three  lists  were  learned  and  reproductions  were  made  on  nine 
days  after  March  3d,  to  April   14th. 

^  Loisette :  Assimilative  Memory,  1896,  p.  20. 

'*  For  the  special  meanings  of  "liability"  of  reproduction,  and  "fidelity"  of 
reproduction,  vid.  Kiilpe :  Outlines  of  Psychology,  p.  197. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  105 

The  chief  subsidiary  results  may  be  stated  as  follows : 

(a)  Scrutinizing  the  words  for  relationships  results  in  suc- 
cessive associations  of  continguity  reinforced  by  a  unity  in  mean- 
ing: i.e.,  in  the  "Pointer,  oak,  ax,  steel,  ore,  mine,"  series, 
Pointer,  oak,  are  not  only  together  in  consciousness  as  two 
words,  but  the  pointer  is  visually  or  kinaesthetically  imaged  as 
an  oak  pointer;  and  oak,  ax,  are  unified  in  an  image  appropriat- 
ing any  suggested  relation  between  them,  as  of  cutting  down 
the  oak  tree,  or  of  fashioning  the  pointer;  Building,  dwelling, 
house,  are  imaged  as  separate  buildings  in  a  hamlet,  bearing 
spatial  relations  to  each  other,  and  parlor  and  partridge  are 
in  the  dwelling — they  all  constitute  a  simple  'complex'.  In- 
centives for  recall  are  thus  doubly  strong.  The  reagents  were 
surprised  that  the  process  of  reproduction  after  a  single  im- 
pression went  off  with  so  much  facility  and  with  so  few  errors. 

(b)  Although  certain  parts  of  a  series  visualized  or  imaged 
in  a  'complex',  fitted  into  a  story  built  up  through  the  imagery 
suggested  by  the  words  at  the  first  impression,  seemed  to  be 
more  difficult  and  to  demand  more  attention,  in  subsequent  re- 
productions, than  other  parts,  this  difficulty  resulted  in  halting 
the  rhythm  of  repetition  rather  than  in  errors.  The  errors 
were  almost  wholly  omissions,  occurring  in  almost  any  part 
of  the  series,  but  seldom  recurring  in  subsequent  reproductions. 
They  are  caused  almost  wholly  by  incentives  of  recall  reaching 
beyond  the  next  member  in  the  series.  Introspection  indicates 
that  incentives  reach  from  one  'complex'  to  another  so  that 
the  most  important  member  in  the  next  'complex'  comes  into 
consciousess  before  all  the  members  of  the  last  and  the  beginning 
members  of  the  next  are  recalled,  and  that  this  consciousness 
of  direction  gives  confidence  and  facilitates  repetition.  In  this 
way  ground  is  covered  from  one  'complex'  to  another  by  neg- 
lecting some  of  the  intervening  members.  The  incentives  of 
recall  of  the  next  word  constantly  vary  in  successive  repetitions. 
To  attain  accuracy  intense  concentration  seems  necessary,  unless 
the  process  is  to  become  merely  rote-repetition  by  the  vocal 
organs,  which  throughout  was  guarded  against  under  the  in- 
junction of  the  training  to  "keep  the  intellect  with  the  senses." 


io6  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

(c)  The  liability  of  recall,  as  shown  by  the  time  taken  to 
reproduce  the  whole  series,  fluctuates  constantly  from  day  to 
day,  yet  considerable  practice-effect  was  shown  by  both  reagents, 
which  indicates  that  in  general  liability  or  recall  increases  under 
conditions  of  relatively  few  repetitions  during  a  long  interval 
of  time.  If  a  free  interval  before  a  subsequent  reproduction 
is  but  two  days,  the  liability  of  recall  is  considerably  increased, 
as  shown  by  decrease  in  time;  if  four  or  five  days,  it  is  still 
increased,  if  14  or  15  days,  it  is  slightly  decreased — about  as 
much  as  it  is  increased  after  four  or  five  days. 

The  advantage  of  the  use  of  mnemonic  connections  in  learn- 
ing German-English  vocabulary  {e.g.,  mistrauen^ — miss — shy 
girl — shy — diffidence)  was  not  definitely  determined;  although 
a  list  of  vocabulary  could  be  repeated  with  certainty  after  one 
perusal,  that  perusal  took  about  as  much  time  as  equally  efficient 
direct  learning;  and  although  the  former  has  the  advantage  of 
the  use  of  the  logical  memory,  while  the  latter  relies  more  upon 
sensory  memory,  its  connections  seem  to  drop  away  with  the 
flight  of  time  about  as  rapidly  as  sensory  memory  falls  away. 

Concerning  the  principal  object  of  the  training,  introspection 
says:  "Takes  intense  concentration;  afterwards  feel  tense  in 
the  frontal  regions."  But  beyond  the  feeling  that  attention  was 
keenly  experienced  in  the  training,  and  therefore  presumably 
improved,  there  is  no  quantitative  evidence  at  hand  to  show 
that  improvement  was  made. 

This  training  was  not  as  regular  nor  as  systematically  con- 
trolled as  the  foregoing. 

e.  The  Test  Results 

In  the  following  discussion  of  test  results  we  shall  notice 
chiefly  (i)  the  extent  of  variability  in  mental  processes 
between  different  reagents  who  apply  themselves  to  the  same 
objective    task,^^    (2)    the    extent   of    variability    in    a    single 

"  Some  of  this  variability  will  undoubtedly  result  from  differences  in  'type,' 
whatever  that  proves  ultimately  to  be,  but  the  following  discussion  takes  no 
account  of  it;  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  diagnosing  and  adequately  describing 
an  individual's  'mental  type/  since  all  individuals  are  probably  mixed  types 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  107 

reagent's  processes  while  applying  himself  to  the  same  objective 
task,  and  (3)  the  conditions  which  must  be  met  for  the  scores 
to  be  comparable.  (4)  The  causes  of  variability,  so  far  as 
they  appear,  and  (5)  the  effect  of  variability  upon  the  scores, 
are  not  neglected. 

According  to  the  form  into  which  we  have  cast  our  tests 
and  training,  it  must  be  remembered,  the  particular  influence 
of  training  upon  these  tests  which  we  are  seeking  is  that  of 
improved  attention.  The  initial  efficiencies  of  the  first  series 
of  tests  constitute  a  cross-section  of  the  initial  capacity  of  at- 
tention; the  final  series  of  tests  gives  the  final  capacity  of 
attention.  If  the  processes  in  the  final  test  have  changed  essen- 
tially from  those  employed  in  the  first  test  in  some  other  way 
than  may  be  attributable  to  better  attention,  if,  for  example, 
the  method  of  work  is  different,  then  the  difference  between 
the  two  scores  would  represent  something  besides  the  change 
in  attention,  and  could  not  be  used.  At  best,  such  a  difference- 
score  could  only  indicate  the  advantage  or  disadvantage  of  doing 
the  task  in  another  way.  Scores  of  the  same  reagent  to  be 
comparable  must  consequently  represent  similar  processes; 
scores  of  different  reagents  to  be  comparable,  we  must  assume, 
should  also  represent  similar  or  at  least  equivalent  processes, 
and  score-differences,  or  per  cent  of  change  in  efficiency,  to 
be  comparable  should  be  based  on  something  near  equal  initial 
efficiency. 

When  comparable,  the  difference-scores  of  the  trained  and 
control  reagents  will  be  inspected  for  transference  of  improved 
attention. 

The  degree  of  analysis  in  the  various  tests  is  not  uniform 
for  the  reason  that  the  processes  engaged  in  the  tests  varied 

which  vary  according  to  means  of  diagnosis  {vid.  Segal,  op.  cit.  and  Fernald 
op.  cit.),  only  the  following  general  and  perhaps  untrustworthy  characteriza- 
tion of  our  reagents,  based  largely  upon  questionnaire  replies  (Wissler:  op. 
cit.  8-9)  supplemented  by  oral  report,  may  be  offered : 

Mn.        Le.       Rt.  SI.        Ly.       He.       Cr.       Al.       Ms.      Wf. 

Visual  Strong  Strong  Strong  Weak  Strong  Fair  Weak  Fair  Strong  Weak 
Auditory  Good  Strong  Weak(?)  Weak  Good  Good  Good  Good  Strong  Weak 
Kinaesth.    Good     Strong  Strong     Weak  Good     Good  Good  Good  Strong  Weak 


io8  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

greatly  in  complexity,  and  the  introspections  of  the  reagents 
consequently  varied  correspondingly  in  completeness;  but  effort 
is  made  to  analyze  the  tests  employing  the  less  complex  pro- 
cesses fully  enough  to  serve  our  primary  purpose  and  to  con- 
tribute to  the  popular  notion  of  the  nature  of  'mental  tests.''^^ 
That  the  extent  of  variability  may  be  adequately  indicated,  all 
the  tests  are  subjected  to  analysis, — an  analysis  that  is  not 
merely  a  logical  schematism,  but  an  empirical  construction  built 
up  from  the  introspections. 

( I )     Reaction  to  Sound 

Simple  Reaction  Time  has  been  used  in  the  study  of  Attention  (Angell 
and  Moore,^  Binet"),  in  determining  mental  and  physical  correlations  with 
children  (Gilbert/)  and  with  university  students  (Cattell,'*  Cattell  and  Far- 
rand,^  Wissler^),  in  determining  psychological  norms  of  men  and  women 
(Thompson*),  and  in  the  study  of  individual  psychology  (Binet  et  Henri,^ 
Henri*).  The  latter*"  emphasize  the  value  of  the  M.V.,  which  has  been 
suggester  by  Titchener'  and  Pillsbury"  as  a  possible  measure  of  attention, 
and  has  been  denominated  by  Buccola  "the  dynamometer  of  the  attention."" 


^  Angell   and   Moore :    Reaction   Time :    A   study   in   Attention    and   Habit. 
Psych.  Rev.    1896.    3 :245-358. 
^  Binet :  Attention  et  Adaptation.    Annee  Psych.     1899.    6 :276ff. 

*  Gilbert :  Researches  on  the  mental  and  physical  development  of  school 
children.    Studies  from  Yale  Psych.  Lab.     1894.    2  :8i. 

^"Cattell:    Mental  Tests  and  Measurements.     Mind.     1890.     N.S.  15:376. 

*  Wissler :  Correlation  of  mental  and  physical  tests.  Psych.  Rev.  Mon. 
No.  16.     1901.     P.  7. 

°  Cattell  and  Farrand:  Physical  and  mental  measurements  of  the  students 
of  Columbia  University.    Psych.  Rev.     1896.    3 :639ff. 

'  Thompson :  Psychological  Norms  in  men  and  women.  Univ.  Chicago 
Contrib.  to  Phil.     1903.    4:8ff. 

'Binet  et  Henri:  La  psychologic  individuelle.    Annee  Psych.     1895.    2:445. 

*  Henri :  fitude  sur  le  travail  psychique  et  physique.    Annee  Psychol.     1896. 

3  :245. 

**  Also,  Binet :  A  propos  de  la  mesure  de  I'intelligence.  Annee  Psychol. 
1905.     1 1 :69-82. 

*Titchener:  Simple  Reactions.  Mind.  1895.  N.S.  4:79;  also,  Lectures  on 
the  elementary  psych,  of  feeling  and  attention.    1908.    P.  280. 

'"  Pillsbury :  Attention      1908.     P.  89. 

"  Buccola :  La  legge  del  tempo  nei  f  enomeni  del  pensiero.  Milano.  1883. 
P-  155;  (Quoted  by  Oehrn :  Experimentelle  Studien  zur  Individualpsychologie. 
Psych.  Arbeiten.    1896.    1:113). 


"In  order  to  allay  any  suspicion  that  our  tests  are  not  representative  and 
are  peculiarly  subject  to  variability  in  processes,  a  paragraph,  with  references, 
showing  the  relation  they  bear  to  other  tests  reported  in  the  literature,  is 
added  to  the  discussion  of  the  results  of  each  test. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  109 

It  is  well  known  that  intensity  of  attention  lowers  both  the 
time"^^  and  the  relative  variation  in  simple  reaction.  But  for 
averages  to  show  this,  they  must  not  be  influenced  by  other 
causes  of  variability:  Health,  'Anlage,'  habituation  to  external 
distraction,  and  the  direction  of  the  attention  must  remain 
uniform.  The  introspections  indicate  extraneous  causes  of 
variation : 

(a)  Conditions  of  health,  through  good,  dull,  tired,  nervous, 
etc. 

(b)  'Anlage',  from  interest  to  indifference,  calm  to  anxious, 
natural  to  muscular  or  sensorial  set  of  consciousness. 

(c)  Process,  as  regards  habituation  to  external  distraction 
(such  as  noise,  unaccustomed  finger  reaction,  pressure  on  the 
key,  temperature  of  the  hands)  ;  as  regards  fluctuation  of  the 
attention,  within  the  series,  between  muscular  and  sensory 
reaction. 

Another  variable  factor  lies  in  the  movement:  In  raising  the 
finger,  the  extensor  muscle  must  overcome  the  flexor,  and  owing 
to  the  balance  between  the  tensions  of  these  antagonistic  muscles, 
the  reaction  movement  is  not  simple  but  varies  from  a  simple 
extensor  reaction  retarded  by  flexor  tension,  to  an  extensor 
reaction  preceded  by  antagonistic  flexor  reaction  which  delays 
the  reaction  movement  40-50  sigma,''"'*  and  three  types  of  this 
variable  factor  have  been  observed."^ 

Examination  of  the  test  averages  and  the  distribution  curves 
confirms  and  supplements  the  evidence  of  introspections.  Clearly, 
the  test  averages  cannot  be  handled  recklessly.  They  cannot 
be  compared  at  random  for  at  least  four  good  reasons : 

(a)  The  change  in  the  direction  of  the  attention  within  the 
series,  as  shown  by  a  bifurcated  distribution  curve,  and  by  a 
large  mean  variation,  is  compatible  with  good  attention.  The 
average  of  such  a  series  might  lie  above  or  below  that  of  a 
series  obtained  with  an  equal  degree  of  attention,  but  where 
the  direction  of  the  attention  remained  constant :  e.g.,  The  atten- 
tion of  Le.  may  have  been  quite  as  good  in  the  series  giving  an 

"Cattell:  Phil.  Stud.  3 :329ff. ;  Pillsbury:  Attention,  82;  Kiilpe:  Outlines, 
432. 

^*  Smith,  W.  G. ;  Antagonistic  Reactions.     Mind,  1903,  12:47-58. 

"Judd,  McAllister,  and  Steele:  Mon.  Supp.  Psych.  Rev,  No.  29,  pp.  i4iff. 


no  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

average  of  117.2  with  a  mean  variation  of  16.6,  as  in  the  series 
giving  136.4  with  a  mean  variation  of  4.6;  and  it  may  have 
been  no  better, 

(b)  Even  when  the  direction  of  the  attention  is  constant 
and  the  psychical  process  is  about  the  same  for  the  individual 
reagent,  his  results  cannot  be  compared  with  those  of  another 
reagent  whose  process,  as  shown  by  a  widely  different  average 
time,  is  essentially  different,  for  the  'abbreviated'  and  the  'com- 
plete' forms  are  not  merely  different  forms  of  the  same  act 
but  are  different  acts,'''^  and  practice-effect  is  greater  upon  the 
'complete'  than  upon  the  'abbreviated'  type.''^''' 

(c)  Test  averages  which  include  great  practice-effect  are  not 
comparable  with  those  which  do  not,  for  they  are  not  so  reliable 
a  measure  of  efficiency. 

(d)  Test  averages  of  reagents  showing  widely  different 
facility  also  are  not  comparable  because  the  reagents  cannot  be 
assumed  to  be  doing  the  same  work. 

Were  all  of  the  variable  influences  to  remain  about  the  same 
in  the  final  tests  as  they  were  in  the  first,  and  were  the  essential 
processes  also  to  remain  the  same,  for  each  reagent,  then  all 
the  averages  might  be  used  in  determining  influence  of  the 
training  interval.  In  so  far  as  our  results  vary  from  this 
requirement,  they  have  to  be  put  aside. 

Distribution  curves  show  changes  in  the  essential  processes 
in  the  final  test,  for  the  majority  of  the  reagents :  Le.  from  an 
automatic  (95  sigma)  and  a  muscular  mode  (i  10-135)  to  a 
sensory  (140)  ;  SI.  from  a  sensory  (145)  to  an  automatic  (95) 
and  two  muscular  modes  (130,  115);  Ly.  from  sensory  (145- 
155)  to  automatic  (100-125);  Cr.  from  muscular  (111-120)  to 
sensori-motor  (130)  ;  Ms.  from  less  to  more  automatic  (94-100) 
and  muscular  (125-130);  Ct.  to  less  automatic  (90-105)  and 
to  more  motor-sensory  (144-150). 

The  reagents  differed  greatly  in  initial  efficiency  (ranging 
from  1 16.0  to  186.1),  and  fall,  in  that  respect,  into  four  groups 
about  the  following  averages:  115,  130,  155,  185. 

"  Angell  and  Moore :  Reaction  Time.  Psych.  Rev.,  1896,  3 :245. 
"Wundt:  Physiologische  Psychologie,  1903  (5te  Auf),  3:419. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  iii 

The  per  cents  of  change  in  the  final  test  from  the  first,  for 
the  reagents  whose  scores  are  fairly  comparable,  are: 

Trained  ist  Control'*  2d  Control 

Group  2    Mn.    -4.3  PE  4.38        Wf.  -0.15  PE  3.40 
He.      5.8  PE  5.62 

3  Rt.   -17.0  PE  6.05 

4  Rr.    -6.7  PE  20. 

And  these  figures  are  not  entirely  free  from  other  causes  of 
variation  besides  change  in  processes :  Those  of  Rt.  and  Rr. 
are  too  great  because  of  the  large  practice-effect  in  their  first 
test  (Rt.  80  sigma,  Rr.  40).  The  loss  of  He.  resulted  from  the 
fact  that  his  first  test  was  taken  in  practiced  form,  just  after 
long  practice  in  another  experiment.  Wf.'s  decrease  of  time 
should  have  been  more,  for  at  the  beginning  of  his  final  test 
he  was  "rather  fatigued,"  and  for  the  latter  part  "somewhat 
nervous,"  and  his  first  test  was  taken  while  still  in  practiced 
form  from  preceding  experimentation. 

The  absolute  difference  for  Mn.  is  a  third  larger  than  the 
probable  error,  for  Rt.  three  times  as  large,  for  He.  a  half 
larger,  for  Wf.  and  Rr.  much  less. 

In  concluding  our  comparison  we  can  only  consider  it  possible 
that  Mn.  and  Rt.  have  transferred  some  improvement  to  this 
test:  Mn.  from  tachistoscopic  training,  and  Rt.  from  a  slight 
practice  in  simple  reaction  to  visual  stimuli  if  not  from  his  train- 
ing in  Learning  12-letter-rectangles. 

Nor  with  the  averages  for  variability  are  the  results  more 
decisive;  yet,  as  was  noted  above,  they  are  recommended  as 
measures  of  attention.  This  would  be  true,  no  doubt,  if  the 
measure  is  to  include  steadiness  of  direction  as  well  as  of  intensity 
of  attention,  as  was  suggested  by  Whipple."^^  Yet,  were  the 
direction  of  the  attention  constant,  it  is  not  obvious  that  a 
given  amount  of  variability  from  a  'sensorial'  average  is  just 
equivalent  to  the  same  amount  of  variability  from  a  'muscular' 

"The  1st  Control  reagents  are  those  who  took  all  the  tests;  the  2d  Control, 
those  who  took  but  one  pair  or  a  few  pairs  of  tests. 

"Whipple:  Reaction  Times  as  a  test  of  Mental  Ability.  Am.  Jr.  Psych., 
1904,  15:496. 


112  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

average,  even  when  both  averages  are  made  by  the  same 
reagent  f^  much  less  when  made  by  different  reagents.  On  these 
grounds  then,  the  variation  averages  of  all  those  who  changed 
in  the  form  of  their  reaction,  in  the  final  test,  must  be  disregarded, 
which  leaves  the  following : 

2d  Control 


Trained 

1st  Control 

MV 

r.v. 

MV        r.v, 

Group  2 

Mn.  -47 

-5-1 

Wf.  2.y      1.9 

He.    o 

-0.9 

Group  3 

Rt.   -1.7 

0.9 

Group  4 

Rr.  -I0.8      -3.8 

The  r.v.  =  MV/M  x  loo,^^  and  makes  the  figures  somewhat 
more  comparable  than  without  the  reduction. 

Variation  in  initial  relative  variability  ranged  from  8.0  to 
i8.8.  The  increase  of  Wf.  is  due  in  part  to  his  low  variation 
in  the  first  test,  taken  when  he  was  in  practiced  form,  and  in 
part  to  nervousness  and  exhaustion  in  the  final;  the  decrease 
of  Mn.  and  Rr.  is  principally  due  to  better  habituation  to  ex- 
perimental conditions,  Mn.  possibly  bringing  some  advantage 
from  her  training  with  the  tachistoscope.  Part  of  Rr.'s  great 
decrease  must  be  attributed  to  his  extreme  nervousness  in  the 
first  test  (his  first  Avg.  MV  was  45.9,  while  Mn.'s  was  17.5). 

It  is  evident  that  in  the  reaction-time  experiment  the  reagent 
must,  as  Wundt  claims,  be  "thoroughly  practiced  in  the  tech- 
nique," or  "there  can  be  no  hope  of  obtaining  reliable  results  ;"^^ 
and  that  lack  of  expertness  in  introspection  makes  it  difficult 
to  group  the  processes  according  to  kind,  so  that  they  may  be 
measured  and  their  measurements  justly  compared.  It  is 
claimed  that  some  reagents  are  so  incapable  of  control  of  the 
direction  of  their  attention  that  they  cannot  be  used  in  the  ex- 
periment.^^ As  to  the  effect  of  practice  on  variability,  it  has 
been  shown  under  certain  conditions  to  increase  it.^* 

*°  Vid.  Alechsiefif :  Phil.  Stud.,  1900,  16 :24. 

^  Titchener :  Experimental  Psychology,  1905,  II,  I:i82. 

^ Wundt:    Vorlesungen,  191 1   (5te  Auf.),  S  312. 

*"  Lange  :    Phil.  Stud.,  1888,  4 :479. 

"  Angell  and  Moore :    'Reaction  Time,  Psych.  Rev.,  1896,  3  :245-258. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  113 


(2)  Marking  Out  Small  a'j 

The  discriminative  reaction  of  "Cancellation"  was  commended  by  Pillsbury' 
as  probably  the  best  test  of  the  positive  type  for  measuring  attention.  It  has 
been  recommended  and  used  for  this  purpose  in  almost  all  of  the  important 
studies  in  individual  psychology  (Binet  et  Henri,''  Henri,*  Toulouse,*  Oehrn," 
Binet,"  Sharp,'  Whitley,*)  ;  it  has  been  used  as  a  mental  test  in  correlational 
studies  (Cattell  and  Farrand,'  Wissler,"  Brown,"),  as  a  means  of  studying  the 
processes  of  recognition  and  discrimination  (Bourdon,"  who  originated  the 
test),  attention  and  adaptation  (Binet"),  fatigue  (Ritter"),  habit  (Bourdon"), 
distraction  and  habituation  (Vogt^"),  general  practice  effect  upon  like  or  re- 
lated processes  (Thorndike  and  Woodworth,"  our  own  experiment  on  mark- 
ing out  words,  pp.  34ff),  practice  effect  upon  individual  differences  (Wells," 
HoUingworth")  ;  and  it  is  included  in  Whipple's  ManuaP  with  tests  for  "At- 
tention and  Perception,"  where  an  historical  and  descriptive  account  of  the 
test  may  be  found.  One  letter  or  character  may  be  crossed  out,  as  the 
small  a,  (Bourdon,"  Binet  et  Henri,^  Toulouse,^  Sharp,'  Whitley*)  or  more 
than  one  letter,  as  a,  c,  I,  t,  or  a,  e,  d,  r,  s,  etc.,  wherever  they  occur  (Binet'  " 
Ritter,"  Bourdon,"  Vogt,"  Brown,"),  or  words  which  contain  given  letters, 
as  both  e  and  r,  may  be  crossed  out  (Thorndike  and  Woodworth"  and  our 
own  experiment,  pp.  34ff).  The  matter  containing  the  letters  to  be  cancelled 
may  be  ordinary  printed  text  or  printed  mixed  words,  in  a  known  or  in  an 
unknown  language,  printed  pages  from  printer's  "pi,"  small  letters  or  capitals, 
pages  of  spaced  or  unspaced  digits,  etc. 


^  Pillsbury :     Attention.    1908.    Pp.  84ff. 

'  Binet  et  Henri :  La  psychologic  individuelle.    Annee  Psych.     1895.    2  :446. 

*  Henri :  fitude  sur  le  Travail  psychique  et  physique.  Annee  Psych.  1896. 
3:239. 

■*  Toulouse :  lEnquete  medico-psychologique  sur  les  rapports  de  la  superiorite 
intellectuelle  avec  la  nevropathie.     (Zola)    1896.     P.  226.  / 

"  Oehrn :  Experimentelle  studien  zur  Individualpsychologie.  Psych.  Arbei- 
ten.     1896.     1 :98. 

'  Binet :  L'fitude  experimentale  de  I'intelligence.    Paris.     1903.     Pp.    236ff. 

'  Sharp :  Individual  psychology :  A  study  in  psychological  method.  Am.  Jr. 
Psych.     1899.     ID  -.356. 

*  Whitley:  An  empirical  study  of  certain  tests  for  individual  diflferences. 
Archives  of  Psychol.  1911.     No.  19.    3:114. 

*  Cattell  and  Farrand:  Physical  and  mental  measurements  of  the  students 
of  Columbia  University.     Psych.  Rev.     1896.    3 :64i. 

'"Wissler:  Correlation  of  mental  and  physical  tests.  Psych.  Rev.  Mon., 
No.  16.     1901.    3:7. 

"  Brown :  Some  experimental  results  in  correlation  of  mental  abilities.  Br. 
Jr.  Psych.     1910.    3 :297. 

"  Bourdon  :  Observations  comparatives  sur  la  reconnaissance,  la  discrimina- 
tion, et  I'association.     Rev.  Philos.     1895.    40:167. 

"Binet:  Attention  et  adaptation.     Annee  Psych.     1899.    6:364. 

"  Ritter :  Ermudungsmessungen.     Zeits.  f.  Psychol.     1900.    24:424. 

"  Bourdon :  Recherches  sur  I'habitude.     Annee  Psychol.     1901.     8 :330. 


114  ^OHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

Marking  out  small  a's  from  lines  of  English  print,  93  mm. 
long,  on  a  page  containing  100  of  them  (see  p.  75),  is  a  fairly- 
simple  task,  but,  as  introspections  show,  may  involve  quite 
dissimilar  processes : 

(a)  Movement  along  the  line  may  be  like  that  in  reading, 
may  alternate  in  direction,  may  embrace  more  than  one  line 
at  a  time,  may  be  interfered  with  or  facilitated  by  following  a 
pencil-point. 

(b)  The  essential  process  may  be  (i)  a  search  for  the  form 
among  all  the  letters,  without  a  unit  of  material  to  search 
through,  or  with  the  word  or  the  line  as  a  unit,  (2)  a  search  for 
the  sound-image  of  the  letter  by  pronouncing  the  words  in  inner 
speech,  (3)  an  incipient  pronunciation  of  all  the  words  with 
the  reliance  mainly  upon  the  kinaesthetic  image  of  the  sounded 
letter,  (4)  a  reading  of  the  text  and  reacting  upon  the  words 
known  to  contain  a. 

(c)  The  main  process  may  not  be  pure,  and  may  be  sup- 
plemented by  ( I )  elimination  of  words  and  suffixes  known  not 
to  contain  a;  (2)  by  activity  of  attention  in  peripheral  vision 
so  as  to  command  a  larger  field,  leading  to  inaccuracy  in  reach- 
ing too  far  forward  and  to  accuracy  in  catching  omitted  letters 
in  the  lines  above. 

(d)  The  process  may  be  retarded  by  distractions  such  as 
(i)  difficulty  with  the  pen,  (2)  appeal  of  the  context,  (3)  look- 
ing back  to  catch  possible  omissions,  etc. 

These  various  processes  may  be  employed  singly,  in  combina- 
tion, or  in  succession  by  a  single  reagent  in  a  single  test;  which 
is  sufficient  warning  that  the  averages  of  such  tests  may  not  be 
used  for  comparison  unless  similarity  of  processes  yielding  them 
is  assured.^^ 


"  Vogt :  Ueber  Ablenkbarkeit  und  Gewohnungsfahigkeit.  Psych.  Arbeiten, 
1899-1901.    3:73. 

"  Thorndike  and  Woodworth :  The  influence  of  improvement  in  one  mental 
function  upon  the  efficiency  of  other  functions.    Psych.  Rev.     1901.    8:553. 

"  Wells :  The  relation  of  practice  to  individual  differences.  Am.  Jr.  Psych. 
1912.    23  77. 

"  Hollingw^orth :  Individual  differences  before,  during,  and  after  practice. 
Psych.  Rev.     1914.    21 :3. 

^  Whipple  :    Manual  of  mental  and  physical  tests.    1910.    Test,  26,  pp.  254ff. 


^  Peters    (Auf merksamkeit   und  'Reizschwelle :   Versuch  zur    Messung   der 
Aufmerksamkeitskonzentration.     Archiv.   f.  ges.   Psych.   1906.     8:391)   thinks 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  115 

Ly.  used  the  visual  cue;  Mn.,  SI.,  and  An.  reacted  to  a  by  an 
auditory  image  of  the  word;  Al.,  Le.,  He.,  and  Wf.,  to  the  word 
as  known  to  contain  a,  supplemented  by  the  visual  cue.  Methods 
changed  some,  or  were  of  mixed  type,  for  all  reagents  during 
the  test.  For  reagents  who  dififered  in  kind  of  performance,  the 
averages  are  not  strictly  comparable ;  and  for  those  whose  process 
changed  in  its  dominant  elements,  in  their  final  test,  the  average 
difference-scores  express  something  more  than  the  effect  of  the 
training  or  the  interval  upon  this  test,  and  must  be  disregarded : 

Rt.,  in  his  final  test,  added  to  his  method  of  attending  to 
words  as  units  and  searching  for  the  visual  form,  direct  reaction 
to  the  word  without  search;  Cr.  changed  from  the  kinaesthetic- 
auditory  cue  to  the  visual  cue ;  Ms.  from  the  visual  cue,  supported 
by  a  kinaesthetic-auditory  image,  to  the  word  cue;  CI.,  from 
marking  words  known  to  contain  a,  without  notice  of  context, 
to  reading  the  text;  and  Ly.,  from  the  word  unit  to  reading 
the  text.  These  changes  in  method  are  independent  of  the  in- 
fluence of  training  in  sustained  attention,  and  were  as  often 
disadvantageous  as  advantageous. 

Initial  efficiencies  ranged  from  113-282  seconds,  and  fall  into 
six  groups:  113,  129,  145,  165,  190,  280, 

The  more  comparable  scores  yield  the  following  per  cent  of 
improvement  (decrease  in  time  of  100  reactions)  in  the  final  test: 


Trained 

1st  Control 

2d  Control 

Group  I 

He.  9 

Group  3 

Wf.  10 

Group  4 

Le.  14 
SI.     9 

Group  5 

Mn.  29 
Al.  15 

Group  6 

An.  11.3 

It  seems  probable  that  the  practice-effect  of  the  test  on  itself  is 
about  10%;  that  it  was  benefited  by  the  tachistoscopic  training 
about  10%  more,  but  that  it  was  not  benefited  by  training  in 
reaction  to  sound.  Learning  12-letter-rectangles,  or  by  Memory 

the  process  so  complex  that  it  must  be  analyzed  before  any  part  of  it  can 
be  subjected  to  measurement;  for  this  reason  he  did  not  use  this  test. 


ii6  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

Training,  or  by  the  other  tests  in  the  series.  The  quick  per- 
ception of  capitals  in  the  tachistoscopic  training  presumably 
lowered  sensitivity  for  visual  impressions,  or  shortened  cog- 
nition-time, v^^hich  was  available  for  more  ready  perception  of 
small  a's  in  the  text. 

(3)     Marking  Out  Small  o's 

Marking  out  small  o's  from  an  inverted  page  of  English 
print  containing  100  (see  p.  75)  of  them,  was  intended  to  be 
a  process  somewhat  free  from  the  distraction  of  the  context,^^ 
which  attended  the  preceding  test,  and  to  offer  opportunity 
'for  a  still  more  simple  process,  not  so  capable  of  change.  But 
introspections  proved  it  to  be  also  quite  variable. 

(a)  (As  above). 

(b)  The  essential  process  may  be  i)  a  search  through  all 
the  letters  for  the  visual  form,  without  a  unit  or  with  the  word 
or  the  line  unit,  and  with  a  purely  visual  image  of  the  0  or  the 
visual  image  strongly  supported  by  an  auditory  or  a  kinaesthetic 
image  of  it;  and  the  kinaesthetic  image  may  be  that  of  a)  re- 
peated pronunciation  of  the  name  of  the  letter,  b)  breathing 
its  sound  continuously,  or  c)  pen-movement  in  tracing  its  form; 
2)  a  search  along  the  line  for  the  only  natural  letter,  since  its 
form  alone  is  not  altered  by  inverting  the  page;  3)  a  blocking 
of  the  inverted  page  into  units  of  a  line,  or  a  part  of  a  line, 
and  a  'spotting'  of  the  letter  that  'stands  out'  from  its  sur- 
roundings, ( in  which  case,  at  moments  when  the  central  prepara- 
tion for  its  cognition  was  not  perfected  by  the  attention,  the  o 

^  Other  methods  of  avoiding  the  distraction  of  the  text  were  noted  above; 
such  as,  the  use  of  text  in  unfamiliar  language,  of  unspaced  or  "pied"  ma- 
terial, etc.  Woodworth  and  Wells  (Association  Tests.  Psych.  Rev.  Mon. 
1911.  v.  13,  No.  5,  pp.  24fif.),  Wells  {op.  cit.),  and  HoUingworth  {op.  cit.), 
used  digits,  which  appear  to  be  much  the  best  material  yet  proposed.  The 
first  two  researches  involved  the  cancellation  of  zero's, — a  close  approach  to 
the  present  test.  Woodworth  and  Wells  (p.  28)  note  some  of  the  irrelevant 
individual  differences  obvious  to  the  experimenter  upon  examination  of  the 
checked  page,  or  upon  observation  of  the  performance:  variation  in  the  man- 
ner of  making  the  cancelling  stroke,  reversal  of  direction  in  inspection  of  the 
line,  misunderstanding  instructions  as  to  amount  to  be  checked  over,  etc. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  117 

failed  to  "stick  out  in  relief  from  the  general  blur  of  letters" 
and  either  had  to  be  painstakingly  searched  for,  or  its  omission 
risked,  either  case  causing  retardation  or  distraction). 

(c)  The  essential  process  may  be  supplemented  by:  i)  re- 
acting to  words  recognized  as  containing  0,  2)  reading  in- 
verted words  in  the  search  for  the  auditory  or  the  kinaesthetic 
image,  3)  the  elimination,  without  search,  of  words  or  suffixes 
known  not  to  contain  0. 

(d)  The  process  may  be  retarded  by  peculiar  distractions:  i) 
Confusion  with  inverted  c,  2)  perseverence  of  tendency  to  react 
to  a's  (this  test  followed  marking  out  a's),^^  3)  looking  back 
for  omissions,  4)  tendency  to  turn  the  head  and  eyes  to  read, 
5)  recognition  of  inverted  words. 

The  following  reagents  changed  their  processes  essentially  in 
the  final  test :  Mn.  changed  from  the  visual  cue  to  word-reaction 
supplemented  by  looking  "for  the  most  natural  letter";  Le. 
changed  from  one  or  two  words  as  a  unit,  to  a  whole  line; 
He.  changed  in  part  to  word-reaction ;  Ms.  from  inverted  image 
of  the  word  to  visual  cue  and  reaction  to  small  words. 

Among  the  other  reagents  the  methods  differed  somewhat: 
Wf.,  Ly.,  and  Al.  used  the  visual  cue  and  reacted  to  small  words; 
Rt.  skipped  words  and  endings  known  not  to  contain  0;  Cr.  and 
SI.,  and  possibly  Gl.  and  An.,  used  the  visual  cue  simply.  The 
more  comparable  results,  because  the  methods  are  more  nearly 
equivalent,  range  in  initial  efficiency  from  125-380  seconds,  and 
fall  into  four  groups:  125,  190,  225,  380.  Changes  in  efficiency 
are  as  follows,  in  per  cent  of  improvement : 


Trained 

1st  Control 

2d  Control 

Group  I 

Cr.      0 

Group  2 

Al.    13 
Rt.  13 
SI.     3 

Wf.  17 

Group  3 

Ly.     4 

Gl.    4 

Group  4 

An.  22.4 

Disregarding  the  results  of  the  2d  Control  reagent  in  Group  4, 
whose  initial  efficiency  was  but  half  that  of  Group  2,  it  appears 

"Binet  (Attention  et  adaptation,  loc.  cit.)   found  interference  in  changing 
from  a,  e,  d,  r,  s  to  i,  0,  I,  j,  t,  (p.  370). 


ii8  JOHN  EDGAR  CO  OVER 

reasonable  to  expect  about  5  %  improvement  in  practice-effect  of 
the  test  itself;  and  perhaps  10%  more  as  the  result  of  training 
on  the  tachistoscope ;  none  from  the  other  tests  or  training.  Rt.'s 
gain  is  largely  due  to  increased  facility  in  recognizing  small 
words  and  suffixes  known  not  to  contain  0  and  passing  them 
by;  there  is  no  introspective  evidence  upon  which  to  explain  Wf.'s 
gain,  but  it  is  probably  due,  in  part,  to  change  in  process.  Those 
reagents  who  changed  processes  in  the  final  test  show  loss  more 
often  than  gain. 

(4)   Card-Sorting 

Card-sorting,  a  series  of  reactions  with  the  mental  processes  of  discrimina- 
tion of  the  stimulus  and  the  choice  of  the  appropriate  movement  interpolated 
between  stimulus  and  reaction,  has  been  used  to  determine  the  influence  of 
mental  work  upon  rate  of  tapping  (Dresslar^),  to  learn  the  conditions  of 
mental  activity  (Bergstrom"),  to  investigate  the  influence  of  interference  of 
associations  upon  memory  (Bergstrom^)  and  upon  the  practice-effect  in  form- 
ing associations  (Bergstrom*  and  Brown  *')  to  determine  the  effect  of  mental 
type  on  interference  of  motor  habits  (McMein  and  Washburn'*),  to  test  mental 
ability  (Bagley,'  Burt'),  to  test  motor  ability  (Thompson*),  and  to  study  the 
learning  process  in  relation  to  transference  and  interference  (Kline  and 
Owens").  In  the  last  research  ordinary  playing  cards  were  sorted  into  52 
compartments,  but  usually  the  stimuli  consist  of  letters  (Bergstrom^),  non- 
sense syllables  (McMein  and  Washburn),  words  (Bergstrom^)  pictures  (Berg- 
strom*),  or  colors  (Burt,  Thompson,  our  own  experiment  on  pp.  soff.)  ;  the 
number  of  compartments,  4  (McMein  and  Washburn,  Thompson),  5  (Burt), 
6  (McMein  and  Washburn,  and  our  own  experiment,  pp.  5off.),  8  (McMein 
and  Washburn),  10  (Bergstrom),  12  (McMein  and  Washburn);  the  packs  con- 
tain 10  cards  of  each  stimulus,  except  those  of  Bergstrom  which  contained  80 
cards,  and  our  own   (see  pp.  75 f.)   which  contained  50. 


*  Dresslar :  Some  influences  which  affect  rapidity  of  voluntary  movements. 
Am.  Jr.  Psych.     1892.    4:5i4ff. 

*  Bergstrom :  Experimental  study  of  some  of  the  conditions  of  mental  activ- 
ity.   Am.  Jr.  Psych.     1893-4.    6:247. 

'Bergstrom:  Experiments  upon  physiological  memory  by  means  of  the  in- 
terference of  associations.     xA.m.  Jr.  Psych.     1892-3.     5 :256ff. 

*  Bergstrom:  Relation  of  the  interference  to  the  practice  effect  of  an  asso- 
ciation.   Am.  Jr.  Psych.    1893-4.    6:433ff. 

*'  Brown :  Habit  interference  in  sorting  cards.  Univ.  Calif.  Pub.  in  Psych. 
1914.    Vol.  I,  No.  4. 

"  McMein  and  Washburn :  Effect  of  mental  type  on  the  interference  of 
motor  habits.    Am.  Jr.  Psych.    1909.    20:282ff. 

*  Bagley :  On  the  correlation  of  mental  and  motor  ability  in  school  children. 
Am.  Jr.  Psych.     1900-1.     12:195. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  II9 

Reaction  with  discrimination  and  choice  is  probably  more  vari- 
able in  its  processes,  in  the  work  of  the  same  reagent  as  well 
as  in  the  work  of  different  reagents,  than  is  simple  reaction, 
since  there  is  more  psychial  process  interpolated  between  the 
stimulus  and  the  movement,  and  variability  in  reaction  experi- 
ments varies  directly  with  the  amount  of  interpolated  process.^^ 
But  the  variability  may  be  such  that  two  scores  still  belong  to 
the  same  kind  of  act  as  is  not  the  case  in  simple  reaction  when 
one  of  them  is  of  the  muscular  and  the  other  is  of  the  sensorial 
type.  Yet  even  here  the  scores  may  also  be  incomparable  because 
the  acts  are  different  in  kind. 

Each  pack  of  fifty  cards  in  this  experiment  was  made  up  of 

six  symbols  shown  in  the  accompany- 
ing plate  of  the  compartments  accord- 
ing to  which  arrangement  they  were 
distributed  (see  Appendix  B.  Figs,  i, 
2,  p.  288). 

In  the  cognition  of  the  smybol,  the 
diameter  was  seen  by  Cr.  and  Wf.  as  classifying  the  cards  into 
vertical,  horizontal,  and  oblique,  pairs;  by  others  as  merely 
forming  the  base  of  a  pointer.  The  radius  was  accepted  as  a 
pointer  by  all,  except  Ly.,  who  named  the  location  of  the  filled 
half  of  the  circle,  and  He.,  who  named  the  location  of  the  blank 
half,  and  was  interpreted  as  pointing  right  or  in,  left  or  in, 
up  or  out,  down  or  out,  down-oblique  or  slant  down,  and  up- 
oblique  or  slant  up;  Ly.  and  He.  used  the  same  terms  of  direc- 
tion. The  cognition  of  the  symbol  was  especially  difficult  for  Ly. 
These  terms  of  direction  served  to  locate  the  three  pairs  on 
the  cabinet,  in  the  scheme  shown  above  by  the  connecting  lines, 


'Burt:  Experimental  tests  on  general  intelligence.  Br.  Jr.  Psych.  1909. 
3:136. 

'  Thompson :  Psychological  norms  in  men  and  women.  Univ.  Chicago 
Contrib.  to  Phil.    1903.    4:    No.  i.    15. 

*  Kline  and  Owens :  Preliminary  report  of  a  study  in  the  learning  process, 
involving  feeling  tone,  transference,  and  interference.  Psych.  Rev.  1913. 
20 :2o6ff . 


^Vid.  Kiilpe:  Outlines,  422;  Oehrn :  Psychol.  Arbeiten,  1:131-2;  Alechsieflf: 
Phil.  Stud.  16:24. 


I20  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

for  most  of  the  reagents  (Mn.  Le.  Rt.  Ly.  He.  Cr.  Wf.  Dn.) 
before  the  first  test  was  over;  SI.,  Ms.,  and  Fr.,  differed,  in  that 
the  latter  two  had  formed  no  scheme  in  the  first  test,  and  the 
former  merely  formed  a  mnemonic  device  to  hold  the  two  rows ; 
as,  upper  row  has  two  radii  East  and  one  North,  lower  row  has 
two  West  and  one  South  (map  directions),  without  further 
placing  of  either  pairs  or  single  cards. 

Individual  variation  in  the  process  of  distributing  was  con- 
siderable.^^ As  is  indicated  above  there  were  some  marked  dif- 
ferences in  the  main  outlines  of  recog-nizing  the  symbols  and 
of  forming  a  scheme  of  the  compartments.  But  even  where 
the  main  outhnes  were  similar,  great  variation  obtained  in  the 
detail  of  the  development  in  the  course  of  the  tests,  so  that, 
strictly  speaking,  no  two  averages  are  measurements  of  precisely 
the  same  mental  processes.     This  variation  consists  in 

(a)  Differences  in  the  predominant  imagery  (verbal,  visual, 
kinaesthetic)  used  in  cognition  of  the  symbol  and  in  locating  its 
compartment;  in  consequent  variation  in  the  number  of  steps 
in  placing  a  single  card  (as,  i — visual  impression  of  the  card, 
2' — verbal  image  accompanying  its  cognition,  3 — visual  or  verbal 
image  of  the  compartment,  4 — kinaesthetic  image  of  movement 
of  arm  to  that  compartent,  5 — visual  impression  of  the  compart- 
ment, 6 — impulse  of  movement;  or,  merely  steps  i,  3  and  6). 

(b)  Varying  dependency  of  the  imagery  used  as  a  cue  for 
the  movement,  upon  a  definite  memorial  scheme  of  the  compart- 
ments, or  upon  random  memorial  elements  of  preceding  sortings. 

(c)  Relative  adaptability  of  the  scheme  adopted  (Sl.'s  was 
particularly  unwieldy) . 

(d)  Facility  in  perfecting  the  scheme. 

(e)  Facility  in  superseding  it  with  automatic  coordinations. 

On  account  of  these  individual  variations  in  the  process  of 
distributing,  at  any  given  point  in  the  tests,  not  only  did  the 
schemes  differ  in  detail,  between  the  individual  reagents,  but  they 
varied  in  degree  of  completion,  resulting  in  varying  amounts  of 
primitive  and  mechanical  matching  of  cards  and  labels,  or  in 
varying   amounts    of    spontaneous   sorting    from   perfected    or 

*'C./.  Individual  variation  reported  by  McMein  and  Washburn  (op.  cit 
p.  283). 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  121 

from  automatic  coordinations.  Some  reac^ents  (Mn.  Dn.  He. 
Cr.  Wf.)  developed  a  scheme  early,  and  had  the  process  partly 
automatic  before  the  fourth  pack  of  the  first  test  was  sorted; 
others  (SI.  Ms.)  did  not  get  a  scheme  well  developed  at  all, 
or  only  at  the  end  of  the  first  test  (Fr.). 

Many  other  individual  variations  in  processes  could  be 
noticed;  such  as,  (a)  effect  of  sequence  upon  placing  a  card — 
one  reagent  prefers  the  succeeding  card  to  belong  to  the  same 
pair  (Cr.)  ;  another  prefers  any  other  (Rt.);  (b)  relative 
preference  for  the  three  pairs — to  one  the  oblique  is  easiest 
(Rt.),  to  another  it  is  the  hardest  (Ly.),  etc. 

Besides  variation  in  the  process,  there  were  variations  among 
the  influences  upon  it : 

(a)  Emotional — The  sorting  was  vexing  and  disliked  (Mn.), 
or  disagreeable  (He.),  caused  nausea  and  trembling  (Ly,),  or 
was  interesting  (Le.,  Wf.),  or  agreeable  (Cr.  SI),  or  indif- 
ferent (Rt.),  and  each  effect  contributed  toward  the  attitude 
with  which  the  reagent  came  to  the  experiment. 

(b)  The  anxiety  for  speed  varied. 

(c)  Physical  causes — such  as,  "sticking  of  cards"  (Mn.), 
or  stiffness  of  cold  hands  (Wf.). 

(d)  Conditions  of  health — Ly.,  He.,  Cr.,  were  fatigued  for 
their  final  test,  and  Wf.  was  nervous ;  and  Rt.  and  Al.  were 
less  alert  than  usual. 

Since  it  is  our  interest  to  compare  averages  of  tests  separated 
by  a  long  interval  of  training  or  of  rest,  still  other  variations 
are  of  great  importance :  Those  resulting  from  the  different 
degrees  of  reproduction,  in  the  final  test,  of  the  schemes  or  of 
the  coordinations  formed  in  the  first  test.  Some  of  the  reagents 
(Ly.,  Al.,  Fr.,  Wf.)  had  them  well  in  mind  and  could  use 
them  early  in  the  final  test;  others  (Le.,  Rt.,  SI.,  He.,  Cr.)  had 
practically  to  begin  anew,  recovering  the  effects  of  their  former 
experience  in  varying  degrees  and  at  varying  points  in  the  final 
tests;  and  with  both  classes  there  was  variation  in  respect  to 
further  development,  particularly  on  the  part  of  the  latter, 
whose  developments  occasionally  conflicted  with  returning  de- 
tails of  earlier  processes.     The  combined  practice  of  both  tests 


122  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

was  not   sufficient   to   lead   to  automatic  coordinations   to   any 
considerable  degree,  and  all  averages  include  practice-effect. 

The  development  of  processes  through  practice  in  the  tests 
may  be  illustrated  by  the  following  record  from  the  in- 
trospections of  Cr. : 

First  Test 

Pack  I.  Matched  cards  with  labels  of  the  comi)artments 
continually.  No  compartments  placed;  pairs  of  symbols 
becoming  distinguished. 

Pack  2.  Some  cards  distributed  from  memory  of  position 
from  distributions  recently  made;  some  from  a  developing 
scheme  of  the  compartments,  which  is  now  drawn  from  memory 
(correctly)  with  some  hesitation:  The  compartments  are 
grouped  in  pairs  (according  to  the  dotted  lines  in  the  plate  a 
few  pages  back)  determined  by  the  direction  of  the  diameters: 
Pair  I.  (positions  i  and  6)  Are  verticles  and  occupy  the  opposite 
corners;  radii  in.  Pair  2.  (positions  2  and  4)  Horizontals; 
oblique  pair  to  the  left;  radii  out.  Pair  3.  (positions  3  and  5) 
Obliques;  oblique  pair  to  the  right;  radii  difficult,  but  such  that 
I  may  classify  "middles  up"   (referring  to  positions  2  and  5). 

Continuity  of  attention  to  the  process  and  deliberately  hold- 
ing the  parts  of  the  developing  scheme  constituted  a  persevering 
'anlage.' 

Pack.  3.  Worked  the  scheme  in  about  tenth  the  time;  sorted 
some  by  exclusion;  e.g.,  horizontals  belong  to  compartments  2 
and  4;  have  a  horizontal  in  hand,  match  with  4  and  throw  it 
into  2  without  looking  at  the  latter's  label ;  but  the  process 
is  almost  wholly  matching. 

Pack  4.  Scheme  comes  easier;  though  instead  of  working 
outright  without  matching,  it  simply  facilitates  matching. 
About  an  eighth  of  the  time  it  works  adequately  alone. 

Final  introspection.  Chief  hindrance  to  the  sorting  is  losing 
calm  control  of  the  partial  application  of  the  scheme  and  of 
its  extension.  This  does  not  seem  to  depend  so  much  upon 
the  intensity  of  the  attention  (which  the  process  seems  to  keep 
high)  as  upon  its  distribution  so  that  the  memorial  factors  are 
kept  sufficiently  in  process,  which  is  very  difficult;  matching 
is  easier.  Some  strain,  mental  and  in  left  hand.  Rather 
agreeable.     (3  errors  in  the  200). 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  123 

Final  Test 

Pack  I.  Recognize  symbols  as  familiar,  but  had  to  work 
up  scheme  of  cabinet;  some  old  classification  returns,  but  new- 
organization  begins  to  supplement  it:  Pair  i  (positions  i,  6) 
"In";  Pair  2  (positions  2,  4)  "Up"  and  "down";  Pair  3. 
Contrary,  "Down"  and  "up."  But  must  glance  at  the  cabinet 
continually   to   assure   myself   of    correctness   of    compartment. 

Pack  2.  Scheme  did  not  develop  so  satisfactorily  as  it  prom- 
ised; for  at  first  the  process  did  not  require  glancing  at  the 
case;  then  had  to  glance  to  avoid  having  to  wait  on  memory, 
which  resulted  in  confusion  to  the  memorial  element  and  a 
resort  to  matching.  (Best  principle  would  have  been  to  depend 
upon  memory,  even  at  occasional  loss  of  time,  thus  avoiding 
confusion  and  retaining  scheme).  Application  of  scheme  isn't 
simple :  sometimes  mechanical  conception  of  direction,  some- 
times incipient  naming  according  to  scheme,  sometimes  simply 
matching. 

(The  change  in  Pair  2.  from  "Outs"  to  "up"  and  "down" 
resulted  in  erroneous  application  of  "in"  to  them,  causing  2 
errors.) 

Pack  3.  (Tired;  have  had  a  wearing  day.)  Scheme  in 
early  part  of  series  took  on  the  following  simplification:  Pair  i. 
(position  I,  4)  "in";  Pair  2.  (positions  2,  5)  "up";  Pair  3. 
(positions  3,  6)  "down."  But  after  working  a  short  time  it 
failed,  and  I  was  compelled  to  resort  to  matching.  (Probably 
because  of  conflict  with  the  old  pairs,  and  lack  of  energy^  in 
holding  memorial  elements  firm). 

Pack  4.  Scheme  worked  better;  I  depended  upon  it.  Feel 
that  I  could  make  great  headway  in  the  next  few  packs,  for 
the  scheme  is  not  fully  mastered,  but  during  this  pack  it  de- 
veloped rapidly.  Instead  of  the  old  incipient  pronunciation  of 
the  class-word,  the  cards  are  placed  by  a  more  facile  cue: 
kinaesthetic  imagery  of  the  meaning  of  the  class-word. 

No  consciousness  of  any  influence  of  training  (on  memory 
schemes). 

In  spite  of  all  the  degrees  of  variation  between  the  dif- 
ferent reagents,  the  general  experience  was  similar — reaction 
with  discrimination  and  choice — and,  since  almost  all  reagents 
developed  or  used  the  same  methods  in  the  final  test  that  they 
developed  in  the  first,  their  results  may,  with  reservations  made 
obvious  by  the  above  discussion,  be  compared.     The  results  of 


Regular 

He. 

23 

Le. 

12 

Mn. 

22 

Rt. 

15 

Ly. 

21 

Cr. 

22 

Al. 

27 

SI. 

A 

124  JOHN  EDGAR  CO  OVER 

two  reagents  are  disregarded:  those  of  Wf.  and  Fr.,  control 
reagents  because  of  Wf.'s  "mental  practice"  on  the  test,  and 
Fr.'s  review  of  the  compartments  and  the  perfecting  of  a 
scheme,  between  tests,  when  they  should  have  had  no  practice.®" 

Initial  efficiencies  ranged  from  79.0-105.4  seconds  per  50 
reactions,  and  they  fall  into  four  groups  around  averages  of 
80,  87,  95,  and  105  sec. 

The  results  of  the  reagents  who  maintained  and  developed 
their  old  methods,  in  per  cent  of  decrease  in  time,  are : 

1st  Control  2d  Control 

Group  I  He.    23  Ms.  10  Dn.  13 

Group  2. 
Group  3. 


Group  4. 

The  more  important  variations  affecting  these  figures  are". 
Le.  took  her  last  half  of  the  final  test  14  days  after  the  first 
half,  which  deprives  it  of  the  practice-effect  shown  by  the  other 
reagents  who  took  their's  two  days  after.  The  interval  between 
the  first  and  final  tests  was  much  shorter  for  AL,  which  no 
doubt  contributed  somewhat  to  his  improvement;  on  the  other 
hand  he  was  less  alert  than  in  the  first  test.  Rt.  complained  of 
a  "muddy"  attention  in  the  final.  Sl.'s  scheme  (map  directions) 
was  so  unwieldy  that  in  his  final  test  his  efficiency  fell  back 
to  its  initial  position  and  he  had  to  cover  again  the  ground  he 
had  covered  in  his  first  test;  this  is  one  illustration  of  the  fact 
that  greater  "room  for  improvement"  cannot  always  be  pre- 
dicated upon  low  initial  capacity  (his  was  the  lowest  in  the 
series).®"* 

From  the  table  it  appears  probable  that  10%  improvement 
may  be  expected  in  this  test  as  a  result  of  practice-effect  upon 
itself;®^  that  10%  more  was  contributed  by  the  training  on  other 
material. 

^  Mental  practice  was  shown  by  Johnson  (Experiments  on  Motor  Education. 
Studies  from  the  Yale  Psych.  Lab.  1902.  10:87)  to  facilitate  simple  reaction 
to  sound. 

*"  On  this  matter,  see  footnote  139,  pp.  222-3. 

'^  This   supposition   is   supported  by  the   evidence  afforded  by  the  former 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  125 

The  principal  factors  of  improvement  seem  to  be : 

(a)  A  more  automatic  use  of  the  memorial  elements  of  the 
old  method  from  the  beginning  (Al.,  Ly.)  or  soon  after  the 
beginning  (Mn.,  Le.,  Rt.,  He.,  Cr.)  of  the  final  test. 

(b)  Some  further  development  of  the  old  scheme  (Al.,  Cr. ), 
although  in  this  there  was  conflict  between  the  new  and  old 
elements. 

(c)  A  readier  apprehension  of  the  symbol  (Ly.,  for  whom 
it  had  been  particularly  difficult. ) 

The  manner  in  which  training  affected  the  test  is  a  matter 

of  hypothesis  and  might  be  offered  as  follows : 

The  training  on  the  tachistoscope  heightened  sensitivity  for 
visual  impressions,  applicable  to  cognition  of  the  cards;  all  the 
training  in  unequal  degrees  heightened  reproductivity  of 
imagery,  applicable  to  the  memorial  elements  of  the  scheme; 
the  tachistoscopic  training  and  the  learning  of  12-letter-rect- 
angles  exercised  coordination  of  part-processes,  applicable  to 
coordinating  discrimination  and  reaction;  the  training  on  the 
memory  schemes  exercised  the  continuous  attention  and  the 
reproduction  of  memorial  elements,  demanded  in  this  test,  and 
all  training  involved  habituation  to  distraction  which  would  be 
applicable  here. 

A  few  applications  of  former  experience  may  be  noted  as  ex- 
amples of  transference  and  spread  of  training:  Mn.  and  Wf. 
were  students  of  higher  mathematics;  they  were  assisted  im- 
mediately to  the  formation  of  a  scheme  by  reason  of  the  per- 
ceived relations  of  the  radii ;  in  contrast  to  this,  Le.  did  not 
notice  until  the  fourth  pack  of  her  first  test  that  the  radius 
formed  a  right-angle  with  the  diameter  on  the  oblique  pair  of 
symbols,  which  relation  was  then  of  assistance  to  her.  SI. 
brought  his  unwieldly  scheme  from  the  class-room. 


training  in  Card-Sorting  (see  Table  XXV  in  Appendix  A)  ;  in  which,  al- 
though it  was  probably  benefited  by  preceding  training  in  Typewriter-Reaction, 
the  practice-eflfect  of  the  first  four  packs  upon  the  second  four  was,  in  per 
cent  of  improvement, 

CI.  o  Al.  17  Cr.  12  Bs.  5 

The  second  four  packs  were  distributed  the  next  day  after  the  first  four  by 
Q.  and  Al.,  three  days  after  by  Cr.,  and  in  the  same  hour  by  Bs.  Al.,  Cr., 
and  Bs.,  are  Al.,  Cr.,  and  Ms.  of  the  present  e.xperiment. 


126  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

(5)    Typewriter  Reaction 

Typewriter-reaction  (see  p;  76)  engages  the  same  essential  processes  as 
card-sorting,  its  chief  difference  lying  in  more  apparatus  and  in  the  necessary 
changes  in  forms  of  stimuli  and  movements.  This  form  of  reaction  was  used 
by  Bair'  in  the  study  of  the  practice  curve  and  interference,  and  in  our  own 
experiment  on  "Reaction  with  Discrimination  and  Choice"  (pp.  Soff)  ;  it  was 
selected  as  a  type  of  mental  work  by  Seashore^  for  the  convenient  measure- 
ment of  which  he  devised  a  special  apparatus — The  Psychergograph. 

This  test  involved  but  four  coordinations  of  stimuli  and  reac- 
tions, and  thus  permitted  a  more  rapid  reaction,  a  slower 
practice-effect,^^  and  a  greater  degree  of  automatization,  by 
the  end  of  the  final  test,  than  was  possible  in  the  card-sorting  test. 

The  order  of  the  letters,  from  left  to  right,  was  a-t-e-n.  The 
cognition  of  the  letter  as  it  appeared  was  not  merely  a  per- 
ception of  the  letter,  but  an  apperception  of  it  as  belonging  to  a 
certain  position,  to  a  certain  key,  or  to  a  certain  finger.  This 
process  varied  considerably  in  its  dominant  imagery : 

(a)  Visual  purely  (Rt.,  He.,  Cr.). 

(b)  Sound  image  i)  of  the  phonetic  value,  or  2)  of  the  name 
of  the  letter. 

(c)  Kinaesthetic  image  of  the  letter's  sound  or  name  (Le. 
Ly.  Wf.)  ;  or  of  the  movement  of  the  eye  toward  its  position 
(Wf.). 

(d)  Combination  of  the  above,  usually  accompanied  by 
actual  incipient  movement  of  the  vocal  organs  in  pronouncing 
the  sound  or  the  name  of  the  letter,  or  movement  of  the  eye 
or  arm  and  fingers  in  locating  the  letter. 

The  placing  of  the  letter  necessary  for  carrying  out  its 
appropriate  reaction  usually  involved  a  mechanism  of  some  sort 
serviceable  for  keeping  the  order  of  the  letters  clearly  in  mind 
and  the  reaction  to  each  ready.     This  also  varied  greatly : 

(a)   Continual   repetition,   in  inner  speech,   of  the  letters  in 

^  Bair :  The  practice  curve :  A  study  in  the  formation  of  habits.  Psych. 
Rev.  Mon.,   1902.    5 :  No.  2. 

^  Seashore  :  A  method  of  measuring  mental  work  :  The  psychergograph. 
Univ.  of  Iowa  Studies   in  Psych.      1902.     3:1-17. 


**The  average  time  of  the  initial  50  reactions  in  card-sorting  was  106 
seconds ;  in  the  typewriter-reaction,  50  sec.  The  average  practice-effect  in 
the  first  test  in  the  former  was  32% ;  in  the  latter,  14%. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  127 

their  order  (SI.  Mn,),  sometimes  assisted  by  a  mnemonic  device, 
as  "Aetna"  (Ly.). 

(b)    Classification  of  the  letters,  to  hold  their  positions  without 

repeating  them  in  their  order : 

i)  Left,  a-t;  right,  e-n  (Rt.). 

2)  I,  2,  3,  4;  vowels  odd;  consonants  even  (Mn.)  or 
vowels  left,  consonants,  right,  and  alphabetic  extremes 
on  the  left  hand  (Wf.). 

3)  Terminals  a — n;  t  belongs  to  a ;  e  to  n  (Le.). 

4)  Alphabetic  order  of  a-t,  of  e-n,  and  of  a-e  (Wf.). 
The  position  referred  to  the  keys  (Le.,  Rt.,  SI.,  Ly.,  Wf.,  Dr.) 

or  to  the  fingers  (He.,  Cr.,  Wf.  2)  ;  in  case  it  referred  to  the 
former,  the  finger  was  sometimes  removed  and  the  key  glanced 
at  to  verify  a  judgment  or  to  restore  the  order  of  the  letters 
to  the  memory  (Ly.,  SI,  Wf.). 

Besides  the  foregoing  causes  for  variation  in  the  results,  there 
were  some  others  peculiar  to  the  task : 

(a)  Anticipation  caused  premonitory  reactions  which  re- 
sulted in  errors  and  confusion  (Le.,  Ly.,  He.,  Sn.)  ;  the  same 
effect  is  caused  by  rapid  rhythm  when  the  process  has  become 
largely  automatic  (He.  Cr. ). 

(b)  Those  who  formed  coordinations  with  the  keys,  often 
had  difficulty  in  the  control  of  their  fingers  (Le.,  Ly.,  Wf.,  Dr.)  ; 
the  difficulty  also  occurred  when  the  scheme  paired  the  letters 
into  right  and  left  groups  and  operated  through  kinaesthetic 
imagery  in  the  arms,  while  the  order  of  the  letters  in  each  group 
was  determined  by  visual  imagery  (Rt. ). 

(c)  The  mental  tension  involved,  sometimes  produced 
dizziness  and  nausea  (Ly. ). 

(d)  The  action  and  noise  of  the  typewriter  is  so  different 
from  the  type-bar  machines  that  it  was  very  distracting  to  some 
of  the  reagents  who  were  typists  (Rt.,  SI.,  He.). 

As  a  result  of  the  influences  of  these  factors  of  variation, 
the  task  was  performed  in  many  different  ways  by  the  respective 
reagents ;  and  the  essential  method  sometimes  changed  during 
the  tests  of  the  individual  reagents. 

The  former  gave  rise  to,  and  may  be  said  to  be  indicated  by, 
great  variation  in  initial  ability,  ranging  from  36.4-67.7  seconds. 


128  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

which  shows  a  preference  for  three  types :  one  at  40  seconds 
per  50  reactions  (Mn.,  Rt.,  He.,  Cr.,  Ms.)  ;  the  second  at  55 
seconds  (He.,  Wf.,  Sn.,  Dn.)  ;  and  the  third  at  65  (SI.,  Ly.). 

If  the  change  in  the  individual  reagent's  work  occurs  in  an 
early  series  of  his  first  test,  it  lowers  his  average  for  that  test 
and  decreases  the  difference  between  the  results  of  the  two 
tests;  if  it  occurs  early  in  his  final  test  or  late  in  the  first  test 
it  operates  in  the  opposite  direction.  The  change  is  sufficiently 
radical  in  the  case  of  two  reagents  to  throw  out  their  results: 
Mn.  changed  from  repetition  of  the  series  of  letters,  in  the 
beginning  of  her  final  test,  to  the  use  of  a  classification;  Wf., 
at  the  beginning  of  his  final  test,  changed  from  "verbal  imagC' — 
key"  to  "verbal  image — finger,"  made  a  radical  change  in  method, 
and  just  before  taking  the  final  test  took  up  practice  in 
typewriting. 

The  improvement,  in  per  cent  of  decrease  in  time,  made  by 
the  other  reas^ents  was : 


Regular 

1st  Control 

2d  Control 

Group  I. 

Le.     14.6 
Rt.     12.4 
He.    -6.1 

Ms. 

-07 

Group  2. 

Cr.       4-9 

Sn.  13.9 
Dr.  13.6 

Group  3. 

SI.      10.4 
Ly.      4.7 

Since  the  reagents  in  groups  2  and  3  did  not  attain  in  their 
practice  in  the  two  tests  an  efficiency  equal  to  that  of  the  reagents 
in  Group  i  at  their  beginning,  inspection  of  results  will  have 
to  be  limited  largely  to  the  latter. 

As  to  the  practice-effect  of  the  test  upon  itself  for  Group  2, 
it  must  be  about  14% ;  we  have,  unfortunately,  no  trained 
reagents  whose  results  can  be  used  in  comparison  to  test  training- 
effect.  For  Group  i,  however,  we  are  able  to  make  an  esti- 
mate. From  the  data  of  the  old  investigation  (see  Appendix 
A,  Tables  XXI  p.  275  and  XXIII  p.  276).  It  is  calculated 
that  continuous  practice  in  work  identical  with  this  test,  for 
reagents  whose  initial  efficiencies  place  them  in  Group  i,  resulted 
in  a  loss  of  7%    (CI.)   and   10^    (Cr.),  and  a  gain  of  0.4% 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  129 

(Mn.)  ;  and  the  effect  of  a  free  intervaP^  of  45  days,  after 
practice  on  36  series,  was  a  gain  of  4.4%  (Mn.).  Since  our 
practice  in  the  first  test  amounted  to  but  4  series,  and  the  interval 
was  twice  as  long,  it  is  possible  that  Le.  Rt.  and  Cr.  were 
benefited  from  4.%  to  10%  by  their  training. 

This  benefit  could  be  described,  however,  only  in  general 
terms:  (a)  The  coordinations  became  more  nearly  equal  in 
strength,  as  is  shown  by  decrease  of  the  smaller  variations; 
(b)  Steadiness  of  attention  increased,  as  is  shown  by  decrease 
in  the  number  of  'balks,'  (except  for  Cr.,  for  whom  there 
was  increased  distraction  in  operating  the  recording  apparatus)  ; 
and  (c)  Control  of  the  memorial  element  increased,  as  is  shown 
by  the  decrease  in  the  length  of  the  'balks.'  (a)  is  shared 
by  Mn.,  SL,  and  Ly. ;  (b)  by  SI;  and  (c)  by  none  of  the  other 
reagents.  The  training  of  the  tachistoscope  may  have  con- 
tributed higher  sensitivity  for  the  visual  stimuli  and  better 
control  in  distributing  the  attention  over  part-processes;  and 
the  training  on  memory  schemes  may  have  contributed  some- 
thing toward  better  control  of  the  memorial  element. 

What  distinguishes  the  three  types,  as  intimated  above,  are 
differences  in  the  performance  of  the  task :  Group  i  begins 
with  a  fairly  direct  coordination  of  either  visual  impression,  or 
the  sound  or  kinaesthetic  image  into  which  it  is  converted,  and 
the  key  or  the  finger;  and  reactions  early  begin  to  become  more 
or  less  automatic  (Rt.,  He.,  Cr.,  Ms.).  The  first  effect  of 
practice  is  likely  to  be  loss  in  efficiency,  as  recorded  in  a  preced- 
ing paragraph,  due  to  evolving  a  scheme,  more  or  less  simple, 
which  is  to  be  instrumental,  if  practice  is  continued  long  enough, 
in  effecting  automatic  coordination  of  visual  impression  and  im- 
pulse of  finger.  Rt.  began  with  (i)  visual  impression,  (2) 
Kinaesthetic  image  of  movement  in  the  right  or  left  arm,  (3) 
visual  image  of  key,  (4)  impulse  of  finger,  and  dropped  (2) 
and  (3).  Cr.  began  with  (i)  visual  impression,  (2)  verbal 
image,  (3)  impulse  of  finger,  and  dropped  (2).     Schemes  were 

'^The  effect  of  the  80-day  interval  upon  all  our  reagents  was  an  average 
loss  between  the  last  series  of  the  first  test  and  the  first  series  of  the  final 
test,  of  6%  of  the  initial  capacity. 


130  JOHN  EDGAR  CO  OVER 

ven'  simple,  relating  the  stimulus  to  kinaesthesis  of  arm  or 
fingers;  for  Cr.  this  consisted  in  'feeling'  the  letter  in  the 
finger.  There  was  no  alphabetic,  logical,  or  phonetic 
classification. 

Group  2  begins  with  a  more  indirect  coordination  of  stimulus 
and  reaction,  by  interpolating  retarding  accompaniments  of 
cognition  and  a  more  or  less  elaborate  or  complex  classification 
of  the  letters,  or  an  inefficient  memorial  representation  of  them, 
so  that  the  reacting  process  is  circuitous.  Wf .  began  with  ( i ) 
visual  impression,  (2)  verbal  image,  (3)  kinaesthetic  image  of 
eye-movement  to  key,  (4)  impulse  of  finger,  and  dropped  (3). 
Schemes  were  complex,  alphabetic,  phonetic,  and  logical. 

Group  3  adds  to  these  interpolations  some  especially  inefficient 
process,  probably  usually  of  method.  SI.  and  Ly.  matched  letter 
and  key,  for  which  the  reacting  finger  had  to  be  removed 
and  returned  before  the  movement  could  be  carried  out. 
The  process  is  divided  into  two  distinct  acts :  cognition  of  letters 
and  searching  for  keys. 

The  elements  constituting  the  process  of  any  reagent  are  at 
first  selected  from  his  stock  of  experience,  and  then  are  changed 
in  accordance  with  the  reagent's  adaptability.  No  doubt  Ly., 
who  was  not  especially  slow  in  card-sorting,  came  to  the  test 
with  a  strong  sensory  set  of  consciousness  in  accordance  with 
her  training  in  reaction  to  sound,  for  she  complained  that  she 
gave  her  chief  attention  to  the  stimulus  and  could  not  get  it 
directed  upon  the  keys;  the  location  of  the  key  was  either 
observed  or  remembered  after  its  use  was  called  for.  Improve- 
ment was  made,  and  mau}^  of  the  reactions  were  later  carried 
out  without  involving  a  glance  at  the  key,  but  the  choice  of  the 
reaction  remained  a  more  or  less  distinct  act  following  the 
discrimination  of  the  stimulus. 

Although  the  course  of  practice  varied  w^ith  the  type,  the 
general  effect  involved  (a)  the  reduction  of  the  interpolated 
process,  (b)  the  simplification  and  finally  transcendence  of  the 
scheme,  (c)  increase  in  partly  or  fully  automatic  reactions. 
The  end  of  continued  practice  would  be  the  automatic  coordina- 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  131 

tion   of   visual   impression   and   finger   impulse,   into   which    all 
types  would  merge. 

(6)  Controlled  Reaction 

The  Controlled  Reaction  involves  further  interpolated  mental  process  be- 
tween stimulus  and  reaction,  namely  the  referring  of  the  stimulus  to  one  of 
the  classes  which  determines  the  choice  of  the  reacting  movement.  It  has 
been  used  in  Jastrow's*  laboratory  under  the  name  of  "Classification  Time"; 
10  monosyllablic  words  of  each  of  the  three  grammatic  classes,  nouns,  verbs, 
and  adjectives,  were  used  in  irregular  order  as  stimuli.  Our  test  (see  p.  77) 
follows  Miinsterberg^  in  using  as  stimuli  the  names  of  poets,  philosophers, 
statesmen,  scientists,  and  musicians.  Both  of  these  researches,  however,  used 
the  chronoscope  for  measuring  the  individual  reactions,  while  we  used  the 
stop-watch  (except  in  the  case  of  Cr.  who  reacted  as  rapidly  as  possible  to 
the  successive  stimuli). 

In  this  reaction  there  were  five  coordinations  between  class- 
name  and  fingers,  but  the  class-name  could  be  got  only  by 
classifying  the  stimulus;  as,  Newton,  "scientist — 4th  finger"; 
Mozart,  "musician — fifth  finger"  ;  etc. 

The  variability  of  processes  may  be  indicated  by  the  following 
classification  of  methods : 

(a)  The  auditory  impression  of  the  name  may  be  followed 
by  a  kinaesthetic  image  of  the  movement  in  the  appropriate 
finger  for  the  class  to  which  the  name  belongs;  and,  as  a  result 
of  practice,  by  a  kinaesthetic  impression  from  incipient  move- 
ment in  the  finger,  and  later  by  the  impulse  of  the  finger  in 
reaction.  Attention  is  mainly  upon  classifying  the  name,  and, 
at  first,  upon  reviewing  the  class-finger  coordinations.  The 
coordination  may  be  effected  by  conferring  the  professional  air, 
disposition,  or  attitude  of  the  class  upon  the  finger  (Cr. ). 

(b)  Or  the  auditory  impression  of  the  name  may  be  followed 
by  the  pronunciation  of  the  class-name,  in  the  effort  of  classifi- 
cation; then  a  judgment  determining  the  class;  then  a  choice 
of  the  appropriate  finger;  then  the  impulse  of  the  finger  (Ly. ). 

(c)  The  coordinations  may  be  more  or  less  strong  so  that 
the  attention  may  be  given  to  the  classification  (Mn.,  Le.,  SI., 
He.,  Le.,  Re.)  ;  or  the  coordinations  may  be  weak  and  demand 
most  of  the  attention  (Rt.,  He.,  Ms.);  or  both  may  be  equally 


^Jastrow,  Morehouse,  &  Harper:  Classification  Time.    Am.  Jr.  Psych.  1891. 
4:411-415. 
*  Miinsterberg :    Beitrage  fur  experimentelle  Psychologie.    1889.    Heft    1:85. 


132  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

difficult  so  that  the  attention  oscillates  between  more  or  less 
separate  acts  (Ly.)  ;  or  both  may  be  equally  easy  so  that  the 
attention  by  quick  oscillations  can  carry  them  both  along  at 
the  same  time  (Cr.). 

(d)  The  coordination  may  involve  a  scheme  of  the  classes 
on  the  fingers  (Le.)  or  in  the  positions  the  fingers  occupy  (Rt.), 
or  the  classes  may  be  simply  held  in  sequential  order  (Wf.). 

The  interval  between  series,  or  between  reactions,  may  be 
used  in  reviewing  the  coordinations  (Wf.,  He.,  Ey.),  or  in 
keeping  the  mind  clear,  in  order  to  avoid  anticipation  of  classes 
(Ey.). 

Some  further  intimation  of  the  variability  of  the  processes, 
not  only  between  different  reagents,  but  with  the  same  reagent, 
(as  attention  must  oscillate  from  one  weak  part  to  another  of 
the  complex  process)  is  given  by  the  nature  of  the  errors.  They 
appear  to  have  been  owing  to  at  least  four  principal  causes : 

(a)  False  classification  through  their  ignorance  or  confu- 
sion (Mn.,  Ly.,  He.,  SI.,  Ey.). 

(b)  Coordination  may  be  weak  and  the  wrong  finger  be 
unconsciously  used  (Mn.,  SI.,  Ly.,  Ms.),  or  confused  with 
another  (Wf.). 

(c)  Control  of  the  fingers  may  be  at  fault;  especially  likely 
with  the  corresponding  fingers  of  the  two  hands  (Le.,  Rt, 
Ms.,  Ey.). 

(d)  Automatic  reactions  may  take  place  before  classification 
is  made,  sometimes  following  the  pronunciation  of  a  class-name 
in  trying  to  classify  the  man  (Le.),  sometimes  as  a  result  of 
strong  expectation  for  a  certain  class  (Ey.),  or  of  a  rhythm 
too  fast  to  control  (Mn.,  Ms.). 

(e)  A  few  errors  occurred  through  misunderstanding  the 
name,  as,  Hayden  for  Hegel,  Coe  for  Poe,  Verdi  for  Virgil, 
(SI.,  Ms.). 

The  greatest  number  of  errors  were  made  by  those  who  put 
their  attention  mostly  upon  classification. 

Among  the  reagents  there  was  considerable  variation  in  initial 
capacity;  it  ranged  from  1.34-2.44  seconds  per  reaction,  for  50 
reactions,  and  falls  into  three  groups:  1.4  (Mn.,  Ms.,  Wf.); 
1.7  (Rt.,  SI,  Ly.,  He.,  Cr.,  Ey.)  ;  2.1  (Le.,  Re.). 

Analysis  of  results  and  examination  of  introspections,  how- 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  133 

ever,  do  not  reveal  any  simple  characterization  for  the  respective 
groups.  That  they  are  vahd  is  attested  by  the  'reduced'  time 
(total  time  minus  free  reaction,  or  cognition  time),  which  would 
change  but  two  reagents,  by  putting  Rt.  in  group  i  and  Ly. 
between  Groups  i  and  2.^* 

The  improvement  in  per  cent  of  decrease  in  time  was  : 

1st  Control  2d  Control 

Group  I.  Mn.  19  Ms.  -7.0 

Wf.    1.8 
Group  2.  Cr.     14  Ey.    6.7 


Trained 

Mn. 

19 

Cr. 

14 

He. 

n.S 

Rt. 

II 

SI. 

1.5 

Ly. 

-5.6 

Le 

26 

Group  3.  Le    26  Re.  20.8 

Mn.  and  Wf.  gained  slightly,  and  Ey.  considerably  (7-16)  in 
errors ;  the  latter  owing  to  her  classification  of  unknown  men  as 
scientists,  the  least  known  class. 

If  the  processes  in  the  respective  groups  can  be  considered 
equivalent,  and  equally  susceptible  to  improvement,  some  ad- 
vantage of  training  may  be  presumed  from  the  tachistoscopic, 
and  memory,  training  and  from  learning  1 2-letter-rectangles. 
In  what  way  the  training  may  be  presumed  to  influence 
the  test  is  a  matter  of  conjecture :  The  training  on  the  tachisto- 
scope  and  learning  1 2-letter-rectangles  demanded  keen  attention 
upon  signal  for  a  short  time,  and  required  its  distribution  over 
the  part-processes  involved ;  the  former,  and  also  the  latter  in 
the  case  of  Rt.,  heightened  reproductivity  of  imagery.  The 
memory  training  may  have  contributed  to  steadiness  in  keeping 
the  memorial  element  of  the  process  ready  to  the  end  of  forming 
automatic  coordinations  between  class  and  finger. 

Improvement  consisted  in  abridgement  of  the  interpolated 
processes  between  stimulus  and  reaction.  Some  of  the  specific 
elements  in  this  were:  (a)  reduction  of  the  pronunciation  of 
the  class-word  to  a  kinaesthetic  image,  or  at  least  to  incipient 

"This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  they  took  a  disproportionate  time  for  the 
mechanical  and  perceptive  part  of  the  reaction ;  the  average  was  .6  or  .7  sec., 
and  they  took  .97  and  .99,  respectively. 


134  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

movement  (Mn.),  or  even  to  the  professional  air  of  the  class 
the  attitude  of  w^hich  is  coordinated  with  the  finger  (Cr.)  ;  (b) 
effecting  coordination  between  class  and  finger  by  use  of  a 
scheme;  Rt.  put  poets  and  musicians  on  the  ends,  statesmen  in 
the  middle,  and  philosophers  and  scientists  in  the  intervening 
spaces,  holding  the  scheme  visually;  then  the  scheme  became 
more  kinaesthetic  and  less  conscious;  (c)  the  habit  of  using 
the  intervals  between  series  for  reviewing  the  coordina- 
tions so  as  to  be  about  equally  prepared  for  all  classes  (He.), 
or  particularly  for  those  which  have  not  been  recently  reacted 
to  (Wf.)  ;  or  for  keeping  the  mind  clear  so  as  not  to  be  in- 
fluenced by  expectation  (Ey.);  (d)  attention  steadied  over  the 
whole  process  so  as  to  keep  it  under  better  control  (He.,  Cr.). 

Those  w^ho  fared  worse  in  the  final  test  than  the  rest  gave 
their  attention  to  the  classification  mostly,  which  left  the  coor- 
dinations relatively  free  from  practice-effect.  Ms.  lost  some  on 
all  the  classes,  but  most  on  poets,  scientists  and  musicians;  SI. 
and  Ly.  made  gains  on  poets,  scientists  and  musicians,  but  lost 
disproportionately  on  philosophers  and  statesmen,  that  is,  their 
coordinations  became  more  unequal  in  strength  than  they  had 
been  in  the  first  test. 

None  gained  equally  on  all  classes,  and  the  greatest  inequali- 
ties of  gain  were  made  by  Le.  who  reduced  her  time  almost 
wholly  upon  philosophers  and  scientists,  classes  that  had  taken 
on  the  average  more  than  twice  the  time  required  for  the  other 
classes.  But  the  effect  of  the  interval  on  all  those  who  gained 
much  was  to  even  up  the  strength  of  the  various  coordinations. 

(7)  Sound  Discrimination 

Sensible  discrimination  ranks  with  reaction  time  as  a  device  or  procedure 
in  the  psychological  laboratory  for  the  study  of  mental  processes.  Kulpe^ 
notes  its  high  dependence  upon  attention,  Titchener'  suggests  it  as  a  gross 
measure  of  attention,  and  Spearman*  concluded,  from  correlational  data,  that 
it  is  most  closely  related  to  general  intelligence.  In  the  laboratory  it  has 
been  used  in  the  study  of  memory  of  lengths  of  lines  (Hegelmaier*),  of 
memory  and  recognition  of  tones  (pitch)  (Wolfe,"  Angell  and  Harwood,* 
Angelf),  of  intensities  of  sounds  (Lehmann,*  Angell'),  and  of  shades  of  gray 
(Lehmann,^*  Angell")  ;  and  for  the  analytical  study  of  mental  imagery  (Bent- 


FORMAL  DISC  I  PL!  XE  135 

ley,"^  Whipple").  It  has  been  used  as  a  mental  test  in  determining  power  to 
discriminate  differences  in  pitch  (Gilbert,'''  Seashore,'^  Wissler,"  Thomp- 
son,^' Spearman,*  Krueger  and  Spearman,''*  Burt'"),  shades  of  gray,  (Thomp- 
son" and  our  own  test  on  pp.  42ff.)  and  color  (Bennett*).  The  test  is 
standardized  in  Whipple's  manual,^  which  gives  an  account  of  its  use  and  its 
results.  Since  qualitative  variability  in  performance  may  depend  in  its  con- 
crete aspects  upon  the  nature  of  the  differences  to  be  discriminated,  it  must 
be  remembered  that  our  test  (see  pp.  jyi.)  involves  differences  in  intensity. 

Since  an  analysis  of  the  various  processes  of  this  test  has 
already  been  made  in  a  former  experiment  on  Discrimination,®^ 
and    a    characterization    of    individual    performances    is    more 


^Kiilpe:    Outlines  of  Psychology.    1901.    38,429. 

'  Titchener  :  Lectures  on  the  elementary  psychology  of  feeling  and  attention. 
1908.     279. 

'  Spearman :  "General  Intelligence"  objectively  determined  and  measured. 
Am.  Jr.  Psych.     1904.    15 1279. 

*  Hegelmaier,  in  Vierordt's  laboratory  about  1852  (Quoted  by  Bergstrom: 
Am.  Jr.  Psych.     18:211). 

'  Wolfe :  Untersuchungen  iiber  das  Tongedachtniss.  Phil.  Stud.  1886. 
3  :534ff. 

*  Angell  and  Harwood :  Experiments  on  discrimination  of  clangs  for  dif- 
ferent intervals  of  time.     I.  Am.  Jr.  Psych.     1899-1900.     11:67ft'. 

■  Angell :  Discrimination  of  clangs  for  different  intervals  of  time.  II.  Am. 
Jr.  Psych.    1900-1901.    I2:58ff. 

"  Lehmann :  Kritische  und  experimentelle  Studien  iiber  das  Wiedererkennen. 
Phil.  Stud.     1892.     7:204ff. 

'Angell:  On  Judgments  of  "Like"  in  discrimination  experiments.  Am.  Jr. 
Psych.     1907.     356ff. 

'"  Lehmann :    Ueber  Wiedererkennen.    Phil.  Stud.    1889.    5 :96ff. 

'Wngell:  Discrimination  of  shades  of  gray  for  different  intervals  of  time. 
Phil.  Stud.    1902.    19:1-21. 

"  Bentley :  Memorj^  image  and  its  qualitative  fidelity.  Am.  Jr.  Psych.  1899. 
11:1-48. 

'* Whipple:  An  analytical  study  of  the  memory  image  and  the  process  of 
judgment  in  the  discrimination  of  clangs  and  tones.  Am.  Jr.  Psych.  1901. 
I2:409ff,  and  1902.     13  :2i9ff. 

"  Gilbert :  Experiments  on  the  musical  sensitiveness  of  school  children. 
Studies  from  Yale  Psych.  Lab.     1893.     i  :8o-87. 

"  Seashore :  Hearing  ability  and  discriminative  ability  for  pitch.  Univ.  of 
Iowa  Studies  in  Psych.    1899.    2  :55-64. 

"Wissler:  Correlation  of  mental  and  physical  tests.  Psych.  Rev.  Mon. 
1901.    3:  No.  6. 

"  Thompson :  Psychological  norms  in  men  and  women :  Univ.  Chicago 
Contrib.  to  Phil.    1903.    4:    No.  i.     Pp.  72,  81. 

"  Krueger  and  Spearman :  Die  Korrelation  zwischen  verschiedenen  geistigen 
Leistungsfahigkeiten.     Zeits.  f.  Psych.     1907.    44:87. 

''Burt:  Experimental  tests  of  general  intelligence.  Br.  Jr.  Psych.  1909. 
3:98,  123. 

^Bennett:      Formal  discipline.      1907.      P.   59. 

^Whipple:  Manual  of  mental  and  physical  tests.  1910.  Of  brightness,  159; 
of  pitch,  180. 

"Pp.  47f. 


136  JOHN  EDGAR  C DOVER 

minutely  made  in  a  following  experiment  in  which  sensible  dis- 
crimination constituted  the  training,^^  only  sufficient  analysis  is 
made  here  to  indicate  the  fact  of  variation  in  processes. 

(a)  The  sounds  may  be  naively  compared  as  external  events 
(Mn.,  Vg.)  sometimes  accompanied  by  visual  imagery  of  the 
experimenter's  production  of  the  sound;  as,  imaging  him  striking 
the  desk  with  a  pencil;  and  the  weaker  sound  may  be  imaged 
as  coming  from  a  nearer  source. 

(b)  The  image  of  the  first  may  be  compared  with  the  sensa- 
tion of  the  second  (Mn.,  Rt.,  He.). 

(c)  The  effect  of  the  sounds  on  the  body  may  be  compared; 
as,  the  placing  of  the  kinaesthetic  auditory  image  higher  or  lower 
in  the  head  (Le.),  or  the  blinking  of  the  eyes  (Ly.). 

(d)  The  reactions  to  the  sounds  may  be  compared;  as,  move- 
ments of  the  hands,  head,  throat  and  tongue  (Ly),  nodding  the 
head  (Mn.),  or  breathing  out  forcibly  like  an  axeman  when 
striking  the  blow  (He.).^''' 

(e)  Or  there  may  be  no  imagery,  and  the  effects  in  the 
attitude  compared  (Rt,  Wf.). 

(f )  And  the  sounds  may  be  represented  by  verbal  classification 
(Ly.,  Ms.). 

Certain  method  may  be  employed;  as,  holding  the  breath 
and  closing  the  eyes  (Le.),  holding  the  ear  in  a  certain  position 
to  catch  the  sound  (SL),  making  allowance  for  the  second  sound 
seeming  relatively  louder  because  of  its  getting  closer  attention 
(He.),  or  because  it  is  accented  by  an  iambic  rhythm  (Wr.). 

The  process  further  varied  because  of  certain  distractions; 
as,  external  noises  (noted  by  almost  all  reagents),  distracting 
thought  (Wf.),  difference  in  quahty  of  sounds  (He.),  expec- 
tation (Rt.,  Le.).  (Many  noticed  the  difference  in  quality  of 
loud  and  weak  sounds  as  appearing  high  or  low  in  pitch,  metallic 
or  wooden,  but  did  not  consider  it  a  distraction  except  in  judging 
"like"— Mn.,  Rt.,  Ly.,  He.,  Ms.). 

^  Pp.   IQQff.,  206ff . 

"Kuhlmann  (On  the  Analysis  of  Auditory  Memory  Consciousness.  Am. 
Jr.  Psych.  1909.  20:  I94ff.)  found  the  motor  processes  used  in  imitating  the 
sounds  to  be  the  most  frequent  factor  in  the  recall  of  details  of  sounds  of 
familiar  things. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  137 

That  the  essential  process  itself  varies  with  the  individual 
reagent  is  indicated  by  introspective  notes  that  the  norm  varied 
in  intensity  (Rt,  Ms.). 

Some  variation  undoubtedly  occurred  by  reason  of  un- 
familiarity  with  the  (customary)  symbols  used  in  recording  the 
judgments  (Le.,  Ms.),  (vid.  Appendix  B.  Fig.  8,  p.  290). 

Although  the  processes  varied  with  each  individual,  there  is 
not  sufficient  introspective  evidence  at  hand  to  indicate  any 
radical  change  between  the  final  and  the  first  tests. 

Initial  capacity  ranged  from  43% -7 3%  of  right  judgments, 
and  may  be  distributed  in  three  groups  :^^  70%  (He.,  Wf.,  SI.), 
57%  (Mn.,  Le.,  Rt,  Ms.),  and  45%   (Ly.,  Vg.,  Wr.). 

Improvement  made  in  per  cent  of  initial  capacity  was : 


Group  I. 
•Group  2. 

Group  3. 


Regular 

1st  Control 

2d  Control 

*S1.    18  65  SI 
He.    000 

Wf.  -4  -6  -46 

Mn.  41  so  so 
Le.  -10   -5-58 

*Ms.  S  22  46 

*Rt.      9  14  35 

Ly.    23  2S  26 

V 

g-    30  35  37 

Wr.  2S  21  21 


*  Foot-note  98  indicates  that  these  reagents  fall  into  lower  classes,  for  the 
2d  and  3d  columns. 

The  first  column  of  per  cents  refers  to  judgments  on  all  four  intervals  above 
and  below  the  value  of  the  norm,  where  D  =  o;  the  second  column,  to  judg- 
ments on  the  first  two  intervals  above  and  below  the  value  of  the  norm  only; 
the  third  column  to  change  in  the  "Difference  Limen." 


°'The  initial  capacity  to  judge  differences  between  the  stimuli  of  the  first 
two  intervals  above  and  below  the  value  of  the  norm,  also  varies,  from  29% 
to  58%  R  cases,  and  would  also  classify  the  reagents  into  three  groups  around' 
the  averages  of  53%,  43%,  and  34%.  But  it  would  change  SI.  to  the  2d  group, 
and  Ms.  and  Rt.  to  the  3d  group. 

Also  the  "Difference  Limen"  (that  point  between  o  and  4  intervals  from 
the  value  of  the  norm  at  which  50%  of  the  judgments  are  right)  of  the 
reagents  ranges  from  0.97  to  3.20;  and  classifies  the  reagents  into  three  groups 
just  as  capacity  of  discrimination  on  the  two  intervals  above  and  below  does; 
except  that  it  places  Ms.  between  Groups  2  and  3.  (These  three  groups :  1.2, 
1-7,  3.) 


138  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

About  Group  i  nothing  can  be  said  except  that  initial  capacity 
was  remarkably  high  and  perhaps  no  improvement  could  be 
expected.  Group  2  shows  several  consistent  gains:  Mn.  in  the 
three  columns  and  SI.  in  the  2d  and  3d  columns.  Abstracting 
from  the  results  o£  Group  3,  where  gain  should  be  relatively 
greater,  Mn.  and  SI.  seem  to  have  been  benefited  by  their  train- 
ing. Mn.  was  exercised  on  minimal  stimuli  in  the  field  of  vision, 
and  may  be  expected  to  show  some  profit  from  it  in  discrimina- 
tion; and  both  Mn.  and  SI.  may  have  applied  some  training- 
effect  in  better  attention  for  the  moment,  and  •  in  better 
reproduction  of  imagery. 

Le.'s  results  are  peculiarly  clouded.  They  do  not  show  the 
improvement  she  made  in  discrimination,  for,  although  half  of 
her  series  in  the  first  test  yielded  4  R  cases  each,  and  half  of 
her  series  in  the  final  test  yielded  6  R  cases  each,  for  some 
reason  which  her  introspections  fail  to  explain,  a  fifth  of  the 
latter  yielded  but  2  R  cases  each.  It  is  possible  that  the  erasures 
in  her  record  indicate  confusion  of  symbols;  in  which  case  her 
irregular  results  are  accounted  for. 

(8)  Memory  of  Sounds 

The  memory  span,  which  is  found  by  noting  the  longest  series  of  digits  or 
letters  perfectly  reproduced  from  a  single  presentation,  usually  auditory,  is 
noted  by  Pillsbury^  as  one  of  the  customary  measures  of  attention,  and  Kiilpe 
says  that  "attention  produces  its  maximal  effect  in  the  reproductory  sphere."^ 
Our  tests  in  memory  of  serially  presented  members  differ  from  the  memory- 
span  test  in  measuring  the  average  number  of  members  reproduced  from  a 
single  presentation  of  a  series  too  long  to  be  completely  retained  (Methode 
der  behaltenen  Glieder,  see  p.  142).  This  test  of  memory  of  sounds  (see 
p.  78)  follows  Fracker,*  and  involves  the  perception  and  recall  of  four  easily 
distinguishable  intensities  of  sound.  It  is  known  that  cognition  of  intensities 
of  sensations  occupies  longer  time  than  cognition  of  qualities,  and  that  discrim- 
ination of  intensities  of  sound  is  peculiarly  difficult  (Kiilpe*).  These  facts 
in  addition  to  the  novelty  of  the  task  and  to  the  composite  character  of  the 
auditory  image  for  clangs,  as  found  by  Whipple,^  are  calculated,  in  spite  of  the 
simplicity  of  the  stimuli,  to  cause  great  qualitative  variation  in  the  processes 
used  in  the  test. 


^Pillsbury:   Attention.   1908.    84ff. 
^Kiilpe:    Outlines  of  psychology.     1901.     430. 

Tracker:    On  the  transference  of  training  in  memory.     Psych.  Rev.  Mon, 
1908.    Whole  No.  38.    Experiment  III,  pp.  59f- 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  I39 

The  four  intensities  making  up  the  series  of  ten  sounds  were 
identified  by  the  numbers  from  i  to  4,  in  the  order  of  intensity. 

Since  this  test  closely  resembles  one  of  Fracker's,^^  the  analysis 
of  processes  and  the  description  of  methods  used  by  the  various 
reagents  will  be  of  particular  interest.  His  reagents  used  visual 
imagery  mainly;  some  of  ours  used  neither  auditory  nor  visual 
imagery   (Wf.). 

As  the  sounds  came  they  had  to  be  cognized,  which  was  done 
by  naming  (giving  them  the  numbers  1-4),  or  by  comparing 
them  with  each  other;  the  former  needed  a  memory  of  absolute 
intensity,  and  the  latter  had  to  be  done  very  quickly,  in  process, 
or  it  had  to  be  left  till  the  whole  series  had  been  received.  These 
three  methods  of  receiving  the  impressions  would  from  the 
beginning  of  the  experiment  necessitate  quite  different  pro- 
cesses, and  they  were  all  illustrated  by  the  reagents  in  this  test. 

The  retention  of  the  sounds  was  carried  out  in  various  ways : 

(a)  Retained  in  auditory  imagery  (He.). 

i)   The  last  few  sounds  of  the  series  only  (Le.,  Ly.). 
2)   In    rhythm    according    to    intensity,    like    chimes 
(Mn.  Gl.). 

(b)  Retained  by  kiriaesthetic  (Wf.),  kinaesthetic-auditory 
(Al.,  SI.,  Ty.),  auditory-visual  (Ly.,  Rt.)  imagery  of  the  name 
(number)  given  to  the  sound  when  it  came. 

i)   Giving  a  rhythm  to  the  naming  (Le.,  Ms.). 

2)  Grouping  the  numbers  (Le.,  Rt,  He.,  Ms.,  Wf.). 

3)  Using  mnemonic  aids;  as  assigning  the  sounds  to 

a  spatial  scheme,  like  numbered  steps  (Al.),^*'^  or 
associating  their  numbers  with  the  visible  numbers 
beside  the  blank  spaces  for  the  record  (SI.,  Ms.). 

(c)  Retained  by  kinaesthetic  imagery  of  the  response  to  the 
sounds   (Ly.). 

*  Kiilpe  :    op.  cit.  pp.  417-8. 

"Whipple:  An  analytical  study  of  the  memory  image  and  the  process  of 
judgment  in  the  discrimination  of  clangs  and  tones.  Am.  Jr.  Psych  IQ02 
13  ■■259.  •'     ■       ^  • 


"  Op.  cit.  Nine  Tones,  p.  59. 

™A  favorite  method  with  Fracker's  reagents  (op.  cit.,  70-71);  Kuhlmann 
(On  the  analysis  of  auditory  memory  consciousness.  Am.  Jr.  Psych.  1909. 
2o;i94ff.)  found  visual  imagery  that  accompanied  the  auditory  imagery  a 
frequent  means  of  recall  of  sounds  of  familiar  things. 


140  JOHN  EDGAR  CO  OVER 

The  imagery  of  some  of  the  reagents  was  of  a  mixed  type 
(Rt.),  and  methods  varied  radically  both  between  and  with 
individual  reagents. 

As  a  consequence  of  doing  so  many  different  tasks  in  taking 
the  same  test,  the  results  varied  greatly;  initial  capacity  ranged 
from  .3  to  .7  average  points  per  series,  and  fall  into  four  groups 
of  about  .7,  .5,  .4,  and  .3  points. 

Improvement  for  the  reagents  who  did  not  radically  change 
their  methods  between  tests,  in  per  cent  of  initial  capacity,  was : 


Regular 

1st  Control 

2d  Control 

Group  I. 

Gl.  -17.6 

Group  3. 

Le.    37 

Rt.    38 

Group  4. 

Al.    52 

Each  of  these  reagents  named  the  sounds  as  they  came;  for 
Le.  the  first  group  of  four  stood  out  in  kinaesthetic  imagery, 
the  last  two  persisted  in  auditory  imagery;  but  in  the  very  last 
of  the  final  test  a  new  and  more  adequate  method  began  to 
develop — retention  of  the  rhythm  of  the  intensities  of  the 
sounds  in  a  series  as  in  chimes.  Rt.  grouped  the  names  in 
rhythms  and  recalled  through  kinaesthetic  and  auditory-visual 
imagery  of  the  names.  Al.  recalled  through  kinaesthetic- 
auditory  imagery ;  his  visual  imagery  is  not  strong  or  he  probably 
would  have  made  use  of  the  vague  spatial  scheme  that  occurred 
to  him  near  the  end  of  the  first  test. 

Some  of  the  other  reagents  made  much  more  loss  or  gain 
(Group  I.  He.  -11,  SI.  -3;  Group  2.  Ly.  -16,  Ms.  14;  Group  3. 
Wf.  49,  Group  4.  Mn.  116%),  but  they  all  made  radical  changes 
in  their  methods  in  the  final  test.  Mn.,  who  made  the  greatest 
gain,  grouped  the  sounds  into  three  rhythms  (4,4,2)  in  the 
first  test ;  but  in  the  final  followed  the  sounds  as  in  a  tune  which 
gave  the  effect  of  chimes,  the  strains  of  which  were  remembered 
and  transposed  into  numbers  by  comparison  after  the  whole 
series  was  received.  SI.  simply  named  the  sounds  in  the  first 
test,  but  appealed  to  mnemonic  aids  in  the  final,  and,  for  some 
series,  associated  the  names  of  the  sounds  with  the  visible  num- 
bers of  their  respective  spaces  on  the  blank  record  before  him 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  141 

(the  same  method  that  Ms.  used  in  her  first  and  had  to  change 
from,  when  discovered,  in  her  final  test)  or  he  associated  them 
with  his  fingers.  Ly.,  in  the  first  test,  reproduced  from  auditory 
and  visual  images  of  the  names  of  the  sounds,  except  for  the 
last  two  or  three  sounds  in  the  series  which  persisted  in  auditory 
imagery,  but  in  the  final  test  she  used  more  kinaesthetic-auditory 
imagery  for  the  early  part  of  the  series  and  kinaesthtic  imagery 
of  response  to  the  sounds  for  the  later  members  of  the  series. 
He.,  who  found  it  extremely  difficult  in  the  first  test  to  (a) 
name  the  sound,  (b)  place  its  order,  and  (c)  hear  the  next 
one,  in  almost  simultaneous  process,  and  who  combined  kinaes- 
thetic  imagery  of  names  with  auditory  imagery  of  sounds,  gave 
up,  in  the  final  test,  the  triple  process  and  attempted  to  get  an 
auditory  impression  of  the  whole  series,  making  identification 
afterward  by  comparison;  and  while  he  stopped  in  the  series 
with  as  many  members  as  he  thought  he  could  retain,  in  the 
first  test,  in  the  final  he  tried  for  all,  which  resulted  in  indefinite 
grouping  and  fixing  of  the  members.  Wf.  introduced  in  his 
final  test  rhythms  of  three. 

The  changes  that  were  made  in  the  processes  seem  to  be 
broadly  adaptive,  and  in  no  way  dependent  upon  the  training 
during  the   interval. 

The  reagents  in  the  table  above  had  practice  in  fixing  and 
reproducing  kinaesthetic  and  visual  imagery  of  letters,  and  it  is 
possible  (a)  that  they  did  not  change  to  other  methods  because 
their  training  improved  them  in  the  elements  they  had  already 
used;  and  (b)  that  this  improvement  accounts  largely  for  the 
improvement  shown  in  the  table.  But  since  there  are  no  com- 
parable records  from  control  reagents  at  hand,  the  latter  point 
must  be  left  an  open  question. 

The  changes  in  method  were  not  necessarily  beneficial;  as  is 
shown  several  paragraphs  above,  in  parenthesis;  half  of  the 
reagents  making  them  lost  in  efficiency. 

As  to  the  effectiveness  of  the  respective  methods,  those  who 
associated  the  number  assigned  to  the  sounds  with  the  numbers 
of  the  blank  spaces   for  the   record   made   the  largest  scores. 


142  JOHN  EDGAR  CO  OVER 

Ms.  producing  a  perfect  score.  The  next  efficient  method  was 
the  auditory  reception  and  retention  of  the  whole  series  as 
chimes.  Neither  method  involved  the  memory  of  sound  in- 
tensity :  The  first  being  merely  the  memory  of  associated  num- 
bers; the  latter,  of  relations  between  intensities  grouped  in  a 
very  exceptional  manner. 

It  would  seem  that  the  visual  forms  of  imagery  employed 
with  greatest  success  by  Fracker's  reagents  were  not  necessary 
forms,  but  were  preferences  on  the  part  of  reagents  who  had 
good  visual  or  kinaesthetic  imagery,  readily  adaptable  to  the 
test,  and  encouraged  by  the  training. 

(9)  Memory  of  Consonants 

Memory  for  letters,  usually  consonants  orally  presented  in  a  series  too 
long  to  be  reproduced  from  a  single  presentation  (according  to  Ebbinghaus" 
Methode  der  behaltenen  Glieder),  has  been  frequently  used  in  mental  tests 
(Jacobs,^*  Miinsterberg,='  Cattell,^  Toulouse,"  Pohlmann,'  Wincli,*  Berg- 
strom*"  Sleight').  Our  test  (see  p.  79)  is  similar  to  Whipple's  Test  38  A. 
(2),  Variation  (6).*  The  five  series  of  10  consonants  were  presented  visually 
with  a  Jastrow  Tachistoscope. 

The  following  is  a  classification  of  the  more  important 
methods  followed  by  the  reagents  in  this  test: 

(a)  Attention  to  the  series  as  a  whole  with  the  view  of 
retaining  the  visual  imagery  (Al.,  who  recalled,  however,  from 
auditory  imagery). 

(b)  Naming  the  letters  in  rhythms  of  4,  4,  2,  (Le.,  Ms)  ; 
of  two's  (Le.) ;  of  4,  3,  3,  etc. 


^  Ebbinghaus :    Ueber  neue  Methode  zur  Priifung  geistiger  Fahigkeiten  und 
ihre  Anwendung  bei  Schulkindern.     Zeits.  f.  Psych.     1897.     13 :40ifif. 
^^  Jacobs :    Experiments   on   "prehension."     Mind.      1887    [o.s.]    12 :7Sff. 

*  Miinsterberg :    Beitrage  zur  Experimentellen  Psychologic.     Heft  4.     1892. 

S.    I2lff. 

^  Cattell :    Mental  tests  and  measurements.     Mind.     1890.     15  -.^yy. 

*  Toulouse :  Enquete  medico-psychologique  sur  les  rapports  de  la  superio- 
rite  intellectuelle  avec  la  nevropathie.     (Zola).     1896.    207. 

°  Pohlmann :  Experimentelle  Beitrage  zur  Lehre  vom  Gedachtnis.  Berlin. 
1906. 

"  Winch :  Immediate  memory  in  school  children.  II  Auditory.  Br.  Jr. 
Psych.     1906.     2 :52ff. 

*^  Bergstrom :  Effect  of  changes  in  the  time  variables  in  memorizing,  to- 
gether with  some  discussion  of  the  technique  of  memory  experimentation. 
Am.  Jr.  Psych.     1907.     i8:2o6ff. 

'Sleight:    Memory  and  formal  training.     Br.  Jr.  Psych.     191 1.    4:430. 

*  Whipple :    Manual  of  mental  and  physical  tests.     1910.     366. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  143 

i)   "Impressing"      the     letter-names     vividly     while 

perceiving. 
2)    Strengthening  the  kinaesthetic  impressions  by  serial 

repetition  after  each   impression    (Tn.,   Ds.),   or 

in  groups  of  four  (Mn.)^**^ 

(c)  Forming  associations  between  the  letters  through  familiar 
initials,  abbreviations,  cattle-brands,  chemical  compounds,  etc. 
(Ms.,  Ly.,  He.). 

(d)  Making  syllables  by  interpolating  vowel  sounds   (Ds.). 

Reproduction  usually  involved  several  kinds  of  imagery  in 
each  record ;  usually  the  first  part  was  reproduced  by  kinaesthetic 
or  kinaesthetic-auditory  imagery,  or  representative  imagery 
(associations),  and  the  last  few  letters  by  kinaesthetic  or  visual 
imagery;  occasionally  there  was  reproduction  from  auditory 
imagery  (Ly.,  Al.).  In  case  both  parts  of  the  series  (begin- 
ning and  end)  were  reproduced  from  kinaesthetic  imagery,  the 
former  was  the  rote  efifect  of  repetitions  and  the  latter  the 
recently  converted  impression. 

Some  of  the  reagents  changed  their  methods  in  the  final  test: 
Le.  changed  from  a  rhythm  of  four  to  a  rhythm  of  two  in 
naming;  and  in  her  final  recorded  the  last  group,  which  was 
not  accorded  so  much  attention,  first,  leaving  effort  free  to 
retain  the  earlier  part  of  the  series  in  kinaesthetic  imagery;  and 
it  is  impossible  to  determine  whether  the  disadvantage  of  the 
former  change  is  equivalent  to  the  advantage  of  the  latter.  Ms., 
though  not  consistent  in  method  in  either  test,  made  some  use  of 
associating  letters  with  their  preceding  fellows,  already  re- 
corded, in  the  first  test,  but  in  the  final  made  use  of  a  rhythm 
of  4  in  naming.  Wf.,  who  relied  in  the  first  test  upon  kinaes- 
thetic imagery  for  the  main  part  of  a  series  and  visual  imagery 
for  the  last  few  letters,  made  great  use  of  associations  for  the 
former  and  kinaesthetic  for  the  latter,  in  the  final  test.  Ds. 
changed  from  forming  syllables  by  interpolating  vowels,  in  the 
first  part  of  the  series,  and  a  visual  retention  of  the  last  few 
letters,  to  rapid  repetitions  between  exposures,  of  all  the  letters 
from  the  beginning  of  each  half  of  the  series;  as,  C,  CV,  CVJ, 
CVJB,  etc. 

'"  Cf.   Miiller,  G.   E. :   Zur  Analyse  der  Gedachtnistatigkeit  und   des  Vor- 
stellungsverlaufes.    Zeitschr.  f.  Psych.     191 1.    Erg.-Bd.  5.     S.  214. 


144  JOHN  EDGAR  CO  OVER 

There  was  some  variation  between  the  reagents  who  retained 
about  the  same  methods  for  their  final  test  that  they  used  in 
their  first.  Mn.  repeated  in  groups  of  four,  reviewing  after 
each  group,  recalling  from  kinaesthetic-auditory  imagery,  and 
occasionally  recorded  from  the  bottom  up  (perhaps  from  visual 
imagery).  Rt.  divided  each  series  into  two  parts  for  rhythm, 
in  the  first  test  taking  5  members  for  the  first  group  and  in 
the  final  6,  which  was  recorded  from  kinaesthetic  imagery,  and 
recording  the  last  few  letters  in  the  series  from  visual  imagery. 
SI.  recorded  the  last  letter  from  visual,  the  others  from  kinaes- 
thetic imagery  and  associations.  Ly.  made  use  of  associations 
and  reproduced  from  kinaesthetic-auditory  imagery  and  from 
visual  imagery.  He.  occasionally  recorded  the  last  letter  from 
visual  imagery,  but  most  of  the  reproduction  was  from  kinaes- 
thetic imagery  supported  by  associations.  Cr.  depended  chiefly 
upon  kinaesthetic-auditory  imagery  for  all  but  the  last  two  letters, 
which  were  retained  visually;  associations  occurred  occasionally. 
Al.  tried  to  grasp  the  series  as  a  whole,  evidently  a  predominantly 
visual  effort,  and  recorded  largely  from  auditory  imagery,  as 
is  shown  by  confusion  between  similarly  sounding  letters.  Tn. 
repeated  letters  in  intervals  between  exposures,  each  time  from 
the  beginning,  until  repetition  excluded  perception  (at  about 
the  7th  consonant) ;  then  got  the  last  few  letters  from 
kinaesthetic  imagery  from  a  single  repetition. 

Initial  capacity  ranged  from  .3  to  .7  points,  per  series,  and 
classifies  the  reagents   into   four  groups:   .7,   .6,    .4,   .3. 

Improvement  in  per  cent  of  increase  over  initial  efficiency, 
was  made  by  those  reagents  retaining  in  the  final  test  the  methods 
used  in  the  first,  as  follows : 


Regular 

1st  Control 

2d  Control 

Group  I. 

He.       17 

Cr.      -13* 

Group  2. 

Mn.      34 
Rt.       20 
SI.        12 

Tn.     I 

Group  3. 

Ly-      -3 

Group  4. 

Al.        99 

^Irregular ;  due  to  operator's  error. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  I45 

Were  one  to  consider  Ly.  as  equivalent  to  a  control  reagent, 
since  she  was  training  in  reaction  time,  it  would  give  some 
slender  basis  for  supposing  that  He.,  Mn.,  Rt.,  and  Al.  were 
benefited  by  their  training.  The  training  of  all,  except  He., 
was  upon  the  reproduction  of  letters  exposed  as  visual  impres- 
sions. Rt.  shows  some  carrying  over  of  method  in  the  6-term 
grouping  in  his  final  test.  The  factors  of  improvement  in  this 
test  are  not  so  different  from  the  factors  of  improvement  in 
the  training: 

(a)  Better  coordination  of  the  part-processes;  e.g.,  perceiv- 
ing and  naming,  grasping  in  rhythm,  reviewing  a  rhythmic 
group  hastily  before  fixing  the  next;  recording  and  retaining, 
since  recording  involves  kinaesthetic  reproduction  of  different 
rhythm,  also  an  accentuation  of  the  group  attended  to,  at  the 
expense  of  other  groups  retained  kinaesthetically.  This  con- 
tributes toward  the  following  classes,  but  does  not  account  wholly 
for  them. 

(b)  Better  fixing  of  imagery. 

(c)  Better  recall. 

The  last  two  factors  depend  upon  increased  sensitivity  and 
higher  liability  and  fidelity  of  reproduction.  Both  are  affected 
by  conditions  of  attention. 

The  complete  segregation  of  these  factors  is  not  possible 
with  the  present  data,  though  each  is  occasionally  clear,  (a)  is 
shown  by  Mn.  in  perfect  records  interspersed  with  low  scores, 
due  to  kinaesthetic  imagery  disappearing  while  recording;  (b) 
is  shown  by  Rt.  who  extends  the  first  group  of  letters  from  five 
or  six  to  seven  or  eight,  and  Al.  who  extends  the  first  group  of 
a  series  from  two  or  three,  to  three  or  four  and  the  last  group 
from  two  to  three;  and  (c)  is  shown  by  Mn.,  Rt.,  and  SI.,  in 
fewer  substitutions  and  misplacings. 

Change  of  method  was  advantageous  to  those  reagents  who 
made  it:  Group  2.  Wf.  improved  his  score  11%;  Group  3. 
Ds.  61.2%;  Le.  39%;  Group  4.    Ms.  48%. 

(10)   Memory  of  Numerals 

Memory  for  digits  serially  presented,  usually  in  auditory  form,  has  been 
used  as  a  mental  test  (Jacobs,*  Bolton,*"  Miinsterberg,"  Toulouse,'  Cattell  and 
Farrand,*  Ebbinghaus,"  Wissler,'  Binet,'  Pohlmann,*  Krueger  and  Spearman." 


146  JOHN  EDGAR  CO  OVER 

Sharp*")  ;  sometimes  for  the  purpose  of  measuring  attention  (Bolton,^*  Binet^). 
Digits  were  preferred  to  non-sense  syllables  by  Cattell  and  Farrand.^  Our 
test  (see  p.  79)  is  similar  to  Whipple's  Test  38  A.  (2),  Variation  (i)  ;" 
series  of  10  printed  digits  were  presented  visually  with  the  Jastrow 
tachistoscope. 

Methods  varied  in  their  general  characteristics  as  follows : 

(a)  Repetition  i)   of  single  numerals  (Tn.,  Le.,  SI.,  Ds.,  Cr.) 

2)  in  rhythms  (Le.,  Ms.,  Rt.,  Tn.,  He.,  Al.) 

3)  Naming  once. 

4)  Naming  over  and  over. 

3)  and  4)  are  both  combined  with  both 
I )  and  2  ) . 

(b)  Grouping   (4-place  Mn. ;  3-place  Wf . ;  5-p  Ds.,  Cr.)}^^ 

(c)  Apperceptive  grouping  or  relating    (Ly.,  He.,  Wf.).^^^ 

(d)  Associating  with  numbers  recorded  in  a  preceding  series 
(Ms.). 

Recall  was  through  various  imagery  and  was  usually  com- 
plex: Auditory  (Mn.),  auditory-visual  (Ly.),  kinaesthetic- 
visual  (Rt.,  Le.,  SI.,  He.),  kinaesthetic-auditory-visual  (Cr.), 
and  through  associations  (Ly.,  Wf.).  Sometimes  the  disparate 
imagery  supported  each  other  on  the  same  numerals  recalled; 


^  Jacobs  :    Experiments  on  "prehension."    Mind.    1887.     [o.s.]  12  :75flF. 
^*  Bolton  :    Growth  of  memory  in  school  children.     Am.  Jr.  Psych.     1891-2. 
4 :362fif . 
"  Miinsterberg :    Beitrage  zur  experimentellen  Psychologie.     Heft  4.     1892. 

I2lff. 

^  Toulouse :  Enquete  medico-psychologique  sur  les  rapports  de  la  superiorite 
intellectuelle  avec  la  nevropathie.     (Zola).     1896.     222. 

*  Cattell  and  Farrand :  Physical  and  mental  measurements  of  the  students 
of  Columbia  University.     Psych.  Rev.  1896.    3  :644. 

"  Ebbinghaus :  Ueber  eine  neue  Methode  zur  Priifung  geistiger  Fahigkeiten 
und  ihre  Anwendung  bei  Schulkindern.    Zeits.  f .  Psych.     1897.     13  :4io. 

•"Wissler:  Correlation  of  mental  and  physical  tests.  Psych.  Rev.  Mon. 
1901.    3  :    No.  6.  p.  9. 

'  Binet :    L'fitude  experimentale  de  I'lntelligence.     1903.     Pp.  24ofif. 

®  Pohlmann :     Experimentelle  Beitrage  zur  Lehre  vom  Gedachtnis.     1906. 

'Krueger  and  Spearman:  Die  Korrelation  zwischen  verschiedenen  geistigen 
Leistungsfahigkeiten.    Zeits.  f.  Psych.     1907.    44:5off. 

^°  Sharp :  Individual  psychology :  A  study  in  psychological  method.  Am. 
Jr.  Psych.     1899.     10:351. 

"Whipple:    Manual  of  mental  and  physical  tests.     1910.     P.  364. 


Cf.,  Miiller:    Zeits.  f.  Psych.,  Erg.  Band  5.  S.  211. 
^  Idem.  S.  215;  also  Knors :  Archiv  f.  d.  ges.  Psych.,  17:340. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  147 

sometimes  cooperated  in  holding  their  respective  numerals 
independently. 

The  following  reagents  used  different  methods  in  the  final 
test  from  those  used  in  the  first :  He.  added  to  his  2-place  method 
of  naming,  an  apperceptive  element  by  relating  the  number  to 
100,  and  he  dropped  his  visual  reproduction  of  the  last  numbers 
in  a  series  for  kinaesthetic  imagery.  Cr.  changed  from  kinaes- 
thetic-auditory,  and  visual  for  the  last  two  letters,  to  a  complex 
grouping  involving  2-place  and  3-place  numbers,  as,  "  '",  "  '". 
Le.  changed  from  a  rhythm  of  four  to  a  mere  repetition.  Al. 
changed  from  a  total  impression  to  groups  of  4,  6.  Ms.  changed 
from  a  rhythm  of  five  to  a  single  naming  with  effort  to  associate 
the  numbers  with  the  figures  recorded  in  the  preceding  series, 
which  essentially  changed  the  process  to  memory  of  associated 
pairs.  Wf.,  who  had  used  kinaesthetic  imagery  supported  by 
associations  (perceived  relationship  between  the  figures  in  the 
series,  such  as  products,  squares,  cubes,  etc.),  changed  to  group- 
ing into  3-place  numbers.  Tn.  and  Ds.  changed  respectively 
from  a  rhythm  of  6,  4,  and  a  grouping  into  5 -place  numbers,  to 
serial  repetition  from  the  beginning,  after  each  exposure,  which 
they  had  just  used  with  the  consonants. 

Individual  differences  in  processes  between  the  reagents  who 
did  not  change  their  methods  radically  were :  Mn.  recalled  from 
auditory  imagery  of  4-place  numbers.  Rt.  used  a  kinaesthetic 
rhythm  for  six  digits,  and  visual  imagery  for  the  last  four.  SI. 
named  in  pairs,  2-place  numbers,  and  recalled  the  last  figure 
or  two  visually.  Ly.  used  associations  furnished  by  perceiving 
relations  between  the  numbers,  their  sums  and  differences,  re- 
tained the  numbers  expressing  the  relationships  visually,  and 
recalled  the  numbers  themselves  from  auditory  imagery 
supported  by  the  association-meanings. 

Initial  capacity  ranged  from  .37  to  .92  points,  per  series, 
and  classifies  the  reagents  into  four  groups:  .8,  .6,  .5,  .4. 

Improvement  in  per  cent  of  increase  over  initial  efficiency, 
for  the  reagents  who  did  not  radically  change  their  methods,  was : 


148  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

Regular  ist  Control  2d  Control 

Group  I.  Mn.    ly 

Rt.    -7* 

Group  2.  SI.     30 

Group  3.  Ly.     15 

*This  score  illustrates  the  inadequacy  of  the  Spearman  "Footrule  for  scor- 
ing the  memory  test;"  {vid.  Whipple:  Tests,  p.  367).  The  loss  was  caused 
by  four  reproduced  numerals  in  correct  order  being  misplaced;  omitting  this 
score,  the  reagent  shows  a  gain  of  12%. 

These  reagents  presumably  improved  somewhat  by  reason  of 
their  training,  the  results  comparing  favorably  v^ith  those  of 
corresponding  groups  in  the  preceding  test,  but  since  there  are 
no  control  averages  to  compare  with  them,  the  supposition  rests 
unproven. 

Those  who  changed  methods,  with  one  exception  gained 
more:  Group  i.  Cr.  10%,  He.-2%;  Tn.  16.7%;  Group  2.  Wf. 
52%,  Ms.  33%;  Group  3.  Ds.  11%;  Group  4.  Le.  17%, 
Al.  70%. 

(11)   Memory  of  Visual  Signs 

The  signs  (see  p.  79,  and  Appendix  B.  Fig.  11,  p.  291) 
were  so  unfamiliar  that,  although  they  were  clearly  perceived 
in  the  one-second  exposures,  they  were  not  apperceived  and 
therefore  were  not  usually  subject  to  recall.  However,  some 
of  the  signs  suggested  to  the  reagents  familiar  things  or  con- 
ventional characters,  and  in  this  way  made  an  impression  that 
could  be  utilized  for  recall.  This  impression  did  not  need  to 
be  largely  visual,  as  the  test  presupposed,  but  could  be  converted 
into  any  other  imagery  that  would  serve  as  a  carrier  for  the  sug- 
gested thing,  plus  a  modicum  of  visual  or  other  imagery  which 
suggested  any  necessary  variation  in  the  drawing.  Thus,  none  of 
the  reagents  reproduced  more  than  the  last  sign  from  purely 
visual  memory;  but  gave  the  symbols  names  of  the  things  they 
resembled,  as,  d,  J,  8,  10,  omega,  phi,  dutch  cap,  etc.,  and  ap- 
proximated the  signs  in  their  reproductions  through  retention 
of  these  names,  principally  in  verbal  imagery,  and  secondary 
criteria  of  deviation  from  the  outline  of  the  conventional  thing. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  I49 

The  test  shows  the  impossibility  of  forcing  the  use  of  visual 
imagery  by  such  material  and  method.-^^'* 

(12)  Memory  of  Associated  Pairs 

Memory  for  "paired  associates"  is  a  variation  of  Miiller  and  Pilzecker's' 
"Treffermethode,"  and  has  been  used  with  vocabulary  material  (Bourdon,* 
Thorndike^).  Our  method  (see  p.  79;  also  Appendix  B,  Fig.  10,  p.  290), 
differs  from  the  original  in  the  simultaneous  presentation  of  the  pairs  to  be 
associated.  A  printed  consonant  and  a  printed  digit  were  presented  together 
in  series  of  10;  recall  of  the  digit  was  required  upon  a  second  presentation 
of  its  associated  consonant. 

The  process  was  intended  to  be  memory  of  contiguous  asso- 
ciations, but  since  this  was  more  difficult  or  unfamiliar  than 
memory  of  serial  order,  the  latter  was  not  always  inhibited, 
and  introspections  are  not  sufficiently  full  to  be  trustworthy  in 
reporting  this  source  of  error. 

Processes,  so  far  as  introspections  indicate  them,  varied 
greatly :  The  usual  process  was  to  name  the  letter  and  digit 
together  so  as  to  get  a  strong  unitary  kinaesthetic,  auditory, 
or  kinaesthetic-auditory,  image  of  the  pair;  and  when  the  letter 
appeared  alone  it  was  again  named  to  recall  its  associate.  It  is  a 
simple  process,  and  if  the  reagents  had  been  so  instructed  they 
probably  could  have  adhered  closely  to  it  without  great  variation. 
But  variation  appears  immediately  in  the  'aufgabe,'  and  intro- 
spections scarcely  more  than  indicate  that  it  occurred. 

Mn.  said  the  numeral  came  as  an  unfinished  syllable  of  a  word. 

Mn.,  Le.  and  others  found  that  familiar  or  significant  letters 
held  their  associations  best. 

He.  and  Ms.  found  visual  (G6,  C5)  and  other  associations: 
H2  from  chemistry;  C3  from  alphabetic  order,  etc. 

Rt.  and  Ly.  supplemented  kinaesthetic  imagery  with  visual, 
and  found  some  combinations  easier  to  pronounce. 

Mn.  and  Ly.  were  caused  some  distraction  by  having  to  inhibit 
a  tendency  to  notice  serial  order. 

*  Miiller  und  Pilzecker :  Experimentelle  Beitrage  zur  Lehre  vom  Gedachtniss. 
Zeits.  f .  Psych.  Erg.  1900.     i  :2. 

*  Bourdon:     Recherches  sur  I'habitude.    Annee  Psych.     1901.    8:327fF. 
'Thorndike:    Memory  for  paired  associates.     Psych.  Rev.     1908.     I5:i22flf. 

***  Cf.  Kuhlmann :  On  the  analysis  of  the  memory  consciousness ;  a  study 
in  the  mental  imagery  and  memory  of  meaningless  visual  forms.  Psych.  Rev., 
1906,  I3:3i6ff. 


ISO  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

He.  found  that  some  associates  not  repeated  came  up  for 
recording.  The  attitude  of  the  reagents  toward  these  indefinite 
associations  varied  somewhat  in  the  two  tests  and  would  be  a 
source  of  error  in  the  results.  This  attitude  is  indicated  by 
the  relative  number  of  recorded  associations  that  proved  correct : 

Per  cent,  of  the  numbers  recorded,  that  were  correct. 


First 

Final 

Mn. 

39 

43 

Le. 

56 

83 

Rt. 

56 

42 

SI. 

54 

41 

Ly. 

56 

56 

He. 

91 

80 

Cr. 

30 

SO 

Al. 

50 

16 

Ms. 

31 

66 

Wf. 

93 

66 

Es. 

52 

94 

Pe. 

42 

46 

Results  show  that  there  was  a  general  tendency  for  associates 
of  earlier  series  to  persist  and  cause  errors,  especially  if  they 
were  intensified  by  significant  letters  or  by  mnemonic  connections. 

The  initial  capacities  ranged  from  .08  to  .42  points  and  re- 
sults are  so  irregular  as  to  make  their  inspection  unprofitable. 

(13)  Learning  12-Letter-Rectangles 

Memory  for  consonants,  simultaneously  presented  in  a  "letter-square"  under 
conditions  of  number  of  letters  and  time  of  presentation  that  preclude  a 
perfect  score,  has  been  used  for  two  principal  purposes:  (i)  to  study  the 
mental  imagery  (Binet  et  Henri,^  Toulouse,"  Cohn/  Segal,^)  ;  and  (2)  to  test 
mental  ability  (Binet,^  Sharp,®  Winch').  The  test  is  standardized  for  the 
former  purpose  by  Titchener*;  for  the  latter  by  Whipple.^  It  has  also  been 
used  for  the  study  of  the  relation  of  attention  to  memory  (Smith^**).  The 
letter-square,  or,  more  precisely,  the  letter-rectangle  usually  contains  12  letters 
in  three  horizontal  rows,  and  is  presented  from  10  to  20  seconds.  Our  test 
(see  p.  80)  is  similar  to  Whipple's  and  follows  Cohn,  Smith,  and  Segal: 
i2-consonant-rectangles  exposed  10" ;  reproduction  after  a  free  interval  of  10". 


^  Binet  et  Henri :   La  psychologic  individuelle.    Annee  Psych.     1895.    2 :436flf. 

^  Toulouse :  Enquete  medico-psychologique  sur  les  rapports  de  la  superiorite 
intellectuelle  avec  la  nevropathie.     (Zola).     1896.    P.  182. 

^  Cohn :  Experimentelle  Untersuchungen  iiber  das  Zusammenwirken  des 
akustisch-motorischen  und  des  visuellen  Gedachtnisses.  Zeits.  f.  Psych.  1897. 
15:162. 

*  Segal :  Ueber  den  Reproductionstypus  und  das  Reproduzieren  von  Vor- 
stellungen.    Archiv  f.  d.  ges.    Psych.    1908.    12: 1331?. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  151 

This  is  a  fairly  simple  exercise,  like  most  of  the  other  standard 
"Mental  Tests,"  yet  it,  too,  may  evoke  quite  different  processes 
in  the  various  reagents,  and  may  become  several  different  tasks 
even  to  the  same  individual. 

The  effect  of  practice  on  the  processes  involved  was  described 
some  pages  back  (pp.  94ff.),  in  the  discussion  of  training  re- 
sults. Here  we  have  to  do  with  fairly  initial  abilities,  except 
in  the  final  tests  of  Rt.  and  SI,  who  trained  on  this  work,  in 
which  variability  shows  itself  freely. 

The  reagents  attempted  the  task  by: 

(a)  Reading  in  vertical  columns  of  3  letters. 

(b)  Reading  in  lines  of  four  letters  (the  general  method). 

1 )  Rote   repetition,   over   and   over,    for   kinaesthetic- 

auditory  impression. 

2)  Fewer  repetitions,  apperceptive;  grouping  of  letters, 

rhythm. 

3)  Visual  impression;  intensified  or  casual. 

4)  Associating  letters.^'^^ 

a)  by  sound,  rhyme. 

b)  by  form  (e.g.,  VWYM,  CGQ). 

c)  by  alphabetic  position  (BC,  KL,  XZ). 

d)  by  signification;      favorite      form,      initials, 

abbreviations,  words,  etc.  (DV,  deo 
volente;  SFTR,  San  Francisco  Teddie 
Roosevelt,  or  sifter). 

^  Binet :     Attention  et  adaptation.    Annee  Psych.     1899.    6 :324flf. 

'Sharp:  Individual  psychology :  A  study  in  psychological  method.  Am.  Jr. 
Psych.     1899.     ID  :353. 

'Winch:  Immediate  memory  in  school  children.  I.  Visual.  Br.  Jr.  Psych. 
1904.     I  :i28. 

'Titchener:  Experimental  psychology.  1901.  Vol.1.  Part  II.  Instructor's 
Manual.    396ff. 

°  Whipple :    Manual  of  mental  and  physical  tests.     1910.    Test  38,  B.  368. 

'"Smith:    Relation  of  attention  to  memory.    Mind.     1895.    N.S.    4:47ff. 

"°  For  advantage  of  logical  connections,  vid.  Balaban :  Zeits.  f.  Psych.  56: 
356-377,  379-400-  For  agreement  of  these  results  with  others,  vid.  Smith: 
op.  cit.  p.  57;  Cohn:  op.  cit.  pp.  I78fif. ;  Segal:  op.  cit.  S.  160;  and  Michotte  et 
Ransy  (Contribution  a  I'etude  de  la  memoire  logique.  fitudes  de  Psychol. 
1912.  1:72-81).  Calkins  (Psych.  Rev.  5:460)  found  the  tendency  to  combine 
unrelated  concrete  w^ords  in  four-fifths  of  her  52  reagents;  three-tenths  of 
the  words,  chosen  to  prevent  natural  combinations,  were  forced  through 
imagery  into  some  sort  of  relation. 


152  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

To  illustrate: 

(a)  Continuous  repetition  of  the  first  line  and  the 
P  H  Q  K  first  column,  on  the  accompanying  12- 
D  S  T  N  letter-rectangle,  yielded  15  points  (Le.); 
L  G  R    F  or  of  the  first  two  lines,  22  points  (Rt). 

(b)  Repetition  of  letters  in  hues,  by  pairs,  yielded 

20  points   (Le.). 

(c)  Repetition    of    the    first    two    lines;    visual 

image  of  the  last  line  on  the  forehead,  gave 
24  points    (SI.). 

(d)  Wholly    representative    (Phone   quick,    long 

distance,  lograft)  gave  36  points,  a  perfect 
score  (Cr.). 

Clearly  those  four  methods  involve  different  kinds  of  work, 
besides  yielding  different  scores. 

Reproduction  was  usually  in  combined  imagery;  the  more 
common  being,  kinaesthetic-auditory,  but  often  also  auditory, 
visual,  and  representative  (associations),  upon  the  same  letters. 
Then  different  letters  were  sometimes  assigned  to  the  different 
forms  of  imagery  so  that  their  cooperation  yielded  more  letters 
than  could  be  reprodued  by  combining  on  the  same  letters.  Some- 
times only  the  imagery  representative  of  the  letters  was 
prominent;  i.e.,  but  little  imagery  of  the  letters,  when  associations 
for  them  were  used. 

Some  of  the  reagents  made  radical  changes  in  their  methods 
in  the  final  tests:  Mn.,  Cr.,  Ms.,  and  Bt.,  changed  to  much 
greater  use  of  associations;  Le.  from  more  rapid  repetition, 
over  and  over,  to  a  single  apperceptive  repetition  and  the  use 
of  associations. 

Other  reagents  retained  their  old  methods : 

Rt.,  who  trained  on  this  work,  repeated  the  first  six  letters 
for  reproduction  from  kinaesthetic  imagery ;  the  next  two  letters 
were  assigned  to  a  visual  association,  or  were  reinforced  for  a 
visual  recall,  and  the  last  line  casually  observed  for  visual  recall 
to  be  recorded  first  while  retaining  the  more  vivid  imagery  to 
be  recorded  later. 

SI.,  who  also  trained  on  this  work,  repeated  the  first  two  lines 
for  kinaesthetic  recall,  and  fixed  the  last  line  by  associations, 
with  meaning,  or  by  visual  imagery,  which  was  very  unstable. 

He.,  Ly.,  and  Wf.  made  forming  associations  a  method. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  IS3 

Al.  sought  to  get  a  kinaesthetic-auditory  impression  of  the 
whole  card. 

Initial  efficiency  ranged  from  15.5  to  27.3  points,  classifying 

the  reagents  into  four  groups:  2y,  22,  18,  16. 

Improvement  upon  initial  efficiency,   for  the  reagents  whose 
methods  remained  practically  the  same,  was: 


Regular 

1st  Control 

2cl  Control 

Group  I. 

He.       7 

Group  2. 

Ly.      26 

Wf.  8 

Group  3. 

SI.      45 
Rt.     44 
Al.       4 

Group  4.  Ed.  12.3 

Ly.'s  is  the  only  score  that  invites  speculation.  Her  method 
was  to  form  associations,  and  her  improvement  is  due  to  doubling 
her  facility  in  forming  them;  this  differs  greatly  from  improve- 
ment in  vivifying  impression  and  heightening  the  power  of 
recall  of  imagery,  which  contributed  to  the  improvement  of  Rt. 
and  SI.,  and  seems  in  no  way  to  depend  upon  her  training  in 
simple  reaction.  In  her  method  variability  is  greater  than  might 
at  first  be  supposed:  In  the  final  test,  although  the  material 
presented  was  the  same  as  that  of  the  first  test,  (a)  different 
letters  were  chosen  for  the  associations,  and  (b)  when  the  same 
letters  were  chosen  the  associations  were  sometimes  different 
(DZ  dizzy,  Diaz;  WSH  wash,  Washington).  Facility  in  form- 
ing associations  varied  greatly,  irrespective  of  material,  even 
within  the  same  test ;  e.g.,  in  the  first  test,  Ly.  began  with  form- 
ing associations  as  a  method,  and  by  the  fourth  experiment  had 
made  a  perfect  score  by  holding  all  the  letters  in  associations, 
but  when  the  7th  card,  used  in  the  above  illustration,  was  ex- 
posed, she  could  find  no  associations  for  the  letters  and  was 
reduced  to  repeating  them  in  pairs,  making  a  score  of  10  points, 
(half  her  average).  In  her  first  test  48%  of  her  recorded  letters 
were  held  in  associations,  in  her  final,  90%  were  so  held. 

Change  in  method  was  advantageous  (improvements  being: 
Group  2.  Cr.  26%;  Group  3.  Mn.  64%,  Bt.  27%;  Group  4. 
Ms.  48%,  Le.  14%),  sometimes  more  than  any  other  circum- 
stance; as  is  well  illustrated  in  the  case  of  Ms.,  a  control  reagent, 
who,  although  her  initial  ability  was  but  a  little  below  theirs. 


154  /OHAT  EDGAR  C DOVER 

showed  greater  improvement  than  was  made  by  either  of  the 
two  reagents  who  trained  on  this  work  i8  days. 

An  interesting  effect  of  the  training  on  this  work  is  found 
in  the  results  of  Rt.  and  SI.,  in  comparison  with  the  results  of 
others,  obtained  on  additional  experiments  in  this  test,  three 
in  which  numerals  were  exposed,  and  one  in  which  commercial 
signs  were  exposed:  These  reagents  carried  over  their  method, 
as  recorded  above,  to  the  numerals,  changing  from  4-place  and 
2-place  grouping,  respectively,  and  made  83%  and  70%  improve- 
ment (while  the  other  reagents  ranged  from  loss  to  55%  im- 
provement), and  this  improvement  is  greater  than  was  made 
with  the  consonants  upon  which  they  trained.  To  the  commercial 
signs,  the  method  was  absolutely  unfitted,  and  they  alone  lost 
in  the  scores  of  the  final  test  (Rt.  7%,  SI.  17%),  SI.,  whose 
Inethod  was  the  more  mechanical,  losing  the  most.^'^^ 

The  chief  factors  of  improvement  in  this  test  were : 

(a)  More  adequate  method. 

(b)  Better  coordination  of  the  kinaesthetic,  auditory,  and 
visual  modes  of  imagery,  and  assigning  them  to  different  material 
rather  than  permitting  them  to  merely  support  each  other  in 
making  vivid  a  smaller  number  of  letters. 

(c)  Better  impression  and  recall  through  each  kind  of 
imagery. 

(d)  More  use  of  associations. 

(e)  Associations  more  apperceptive. 

(14.)  Same.     With  Distraction 

Distraction  in  learning  consonants  visually  presented  in  letter-rectangles 
tias  usually  been  applied  to  the  period  of  perception  (Smith/  Cohn/  Segaf) 
and  has  consisted  in  counting,  adding,  or  intoning  a  vowel  sound ;  occasion- 
ally the  distraction  has  been  applied  to  the  interval  between  perception  and 
reproduction  (Bingham/  Finzi^).  In  our  test  (see  p.  80)  the  reagent  was 
required  to  add  digits  pronounced  by  the  experimenter  during  the  interval 
between  perception  and  reproduction,  and  to  write  down  the  sum  before 
lie  began  recording  his  letters. 


^  Smith  :  op.  cit.,  47ff. 
*Cohn:  op.  cit.,  162. 
"Segal:  op.  cit.,  133. 

"Bingham:  Memory,  II.     Psych.  Rev.,  1894,  1:453^- 

"Finzi:    Zur    Untersuchung   der    Auffassungsfahigkeit    und    Merkfahigkeit. 
Psych.     Arbeiten,  1899-1901,  3:295. 

^"^  Cf.  Sleight,  op.  cit.,  pp.  440,  et  seq. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  IS5 

Interpolation  of  processes,  as  usual,  again  increases  variability 
in  processes  and  results. 

In  the  preceding  test  attention  could  be  given,  during  the 
lo-second  interval  between  impression  and  recording,  to  the 
retention  and  fixing  of  the  letters;  in  this,  a  variable  division  of 
the  attention  takes  place  between  retention  and  adding,  resulting 
in  a  further  important  source  of  variation  beyond  those  of  the 
preceding  test. 

(a)  The  adding  may  be  carried  on  either  in  visual  imagery, 
or  auditory  imagery,  partial  sums  being  kinaesthetically  imaged 
or  repeated,  while  the  attention  shifts  quickly^^'^  to  the  verbal  or 
other  imagery  from  which  the  recall  of  the  letters  is  sought  to 
be  made. 

(b)  The  whole  attention  may  be  given  to  the  adding  in  the 
interval  while  the  numbers  are  pronounced. 

(c)  Or,  attention  may  be  given  to  further  fixing  the  imagery 
of  the  letters  for  surer  recall,  and  turn  with  leisure  and  con- 
fidence to  the  auditory  images  of  the  numbers  after  they  have 
all  been  pronounced. 

The  first  method  is  apt  to  lead  to  incorrect  sums  and  to  great 
decrease  in  the  score ;  the  second  to  correct  sums,  but  to  decrease 
in  the  score;  the  third  to  correct  sums,  if  auditory  imagery 
is  fair,  and  to  a  good  score. 

Variability  is  further  increased  by  the  varying  degrees  of 
conflict  between  the  part-processes.  Difficulty  in  adding,  using 
the  first  method  above,  dispersed  clear  imagery,  because  of 
confusion  of  mind  it  occasioned  (Le.).  Both  kinaesthetic  and 
visual  imagery  were  interfered  with,  when  the  second  method 
was  used  (Rt.).  Associations  escaped  when  they  were  merely 
verbal,  because  of  the  conflict  with  kinaesthetic  impressions  in 
pronouncing  the  partial  sums   (Ly.  He.). 

Since  recall  is  surer  from  associations  than  from  imagery  of 
the  letters,^*^^  almost  all  reagents  resorted  to  them,   but  with 

"'Smith  (Mind.  N.S.  4:66)  found  that  the  attention  of  his  reagents,  who 
were  set  to  learning  the  letters  while  adding,  oscillated  between  the  two 
tasks. 

^''In  the  preceding  experiment,  when  letters  had  been  fixed  in  an  associa- 
tion, no  further  attention  was  given  to  them,  the  interval  being  filled  with 


156  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

varying  facility.  Not  only  the  readiness  to  form  associations 
was  variable,  but  selection  of  such  kinds  of  associations  as 
involve  more  apperception  was  variable,  and,  consequently, 
retention  of  associations  was  variable. 

The  whole  association  may  be  lost;  or  by  a  sHght  cue  may 
yield  its  quota  to  the  score.  The  following  will  illustrate  how 
near  a  o  score  is  to  a  score  of  ioo%,  when  associations  are  used: 
A  reagent  gave  full  attention  to  adding  during  the  interval, 
recorded  a  correct  sum,  and  found  that  he  could  not  recall  a 
trace  of  his  associations  or  even  a  letter ;  after  a  moment,  weak 
kinaesthetic  imagery  brought  back  the  association  of  the  first 
two  letters;  then  in  recording  these,  associative  connections 
grew  stronger  and  the  associations  all  returned  (led  by  meaning 
rather  than  by  verbal  imagery),  and  a  perfect  score  was 
produced  (Cr.). 

An  association  may  be  recalled,  however,  and  be  either  untrust- 
worthy or  useless,  because  of  the  absence  of  further  imagery 
relating  the  letters  definitely  to  it.  The  influence  of  the  imagery 
is  seen  in  the  record  of  VNWY  from  the  associated  word 
"Vanity";  Van(it)y;  the  substitution  of  "W"  for  "it"  was  held 
in  visual  imagery  (Cr.).  The  adding  was  often  fatal  to  this 
imagery  as  may  be  seen  from  the  failure  of  "North  Buckham" 
to  produce  NRT  BKYM  by  producing  NTH,  thus  yielding  the 
lowest  score  of  the  series  (Cr.). 

None  of  the  reagents  were  constant  in  their  methods,  and 
initial  ability  ranged  from  8.3  points  to  19.5.  Distraction  ranged 
from  15%  to  60%. 


effort  to  retain  by  repeating  letters  held  in  less  sure  imagery.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  first  test,  here,  the  reagent  said :  "I  rested  my  attention  on  the 
last  column  more  than  on  any  other,  but  the  second  seemed  to  form  a  word; 
I  retained  the  latter  and  could  not  remember  the  former."  (Mn.).  This  con- 
forms with  the  findings  of  Balaban  (o/>.  cit.)  that  associative  learning  was 
eight  times  more  effective  than  mechanical  memorization,  and  of  Arnold  (The 
initial  tendency  in  ideal  revival.  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  1907,  18:251)  that  recall  is 
insured  by  a  more  closely  organized  disposition,  a  better  developed  meaning, 
a  more  complete  organic  whole. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  I57 

(15)   Word-Completion 

This  test  (see  p.  8of.)  is  an  application  of  Ebbinghaus'^  "Completion  Test" 
to  words,  and  differs  from  Whipple's'  "Word-building"  test  in  greatly  limiting 
the  possible  combinations.  It  involves  equivocal  reproduction  or  controlled 
association,  and  was  designed  to  measure  a  narrow  type  of  inventive  or  im- 
aginative power. 

Some  of  the  reagents  completed  the  hst  in  less  than  100 
seconds;  others  left  it  unfinished  in  300.  The  process  differed 
greatly,  especially  with  respect  to  the  'Aufgabe.'  All  reagents 
sounded  the  consonants  phonetically,  interpolating  between  them 
indefinite  vowel  sounds,  until  a  word  was  called  up  by  the 
kinaesthetic-auditory  cue.  Upon  a  hitch  in  getting  a  word, 
some  of  the  reagents  (Le.,  Rt.,  Cr.,  Ms.,  Wf.)  started 
systematically  sounding  definitely  the  various  vowels,  taking 
them  in  order,  between  the  first  pair  of  consonants.  Only 
once  did  the  visual  form  suggest  a  word   (Rt.). 

Although  instructions  were  clearly  given  to  add  letters  any- 
where to  complete  a  word,  only  twice  did  an  added  letter 
precede  the  first  consonant  (Ly.,  Ms.),  and  occasionally  the 
reagents  otherwise  Hmited  their  task,  e.g.,  Lie.  and  Ms.,  after 
their  experience  in  the  first  test,  limited  additions  in  the  final 
test  to  the  two  spaces  between  consonants,  and  failed  to  com- 
plete the  ten  words  within  the  5-minute  time-limit;  He.,  in  his 
first  test,  limited  himself  in  the  first  few  words  to  the  space 
between  the  first  pair  of  consonants,  and  after  leaving  an 
incomplete  word  and  properly  assigning  himself  to  other  spaces 
in  completing  following  words,  he  returned  to  it,  again  limiting 
himself  as  before. 

Since  the  difficulty  of  the  task  depends  upon  the  'Aufgabe,' 
which  the  reagent  holds  in  his  mind,  it  is  obvious  that  quan- 
titative results,  without  adequate  introspection,  are  without 
value.  Even  with  adequate  introspection,  there  is  no  way  to 
equate  results  when  the  processes  are  greatly  different. 

The  test  is  of  value  in  showing  how,  under  precisely  the  same 


*  Ebbinghaus :  Ueber  eine  neue  Methode  zur  Priifung  geistiger  Fahigkeiten 
und  ihre  Anwendung  bei  Schulkindern.  Zeits.  f.  Psycli.,  1897,  13:401!?. ;  also 
Whipple's  Test  48,  p.  445ff. 

'Whipple:    Manual  of  mental  and  physical  tests,  1910,  Test  2y,  pp.  44iff. 


158  JOHN  EDGAR  CO  OVER 

instructions  and  external  conditions,  different  reagents  vary- 
widely  (a)  in  the  task  to  be  performed,  and  (b)  in  the  processes 
they  use  to  carry  out  a  similar  task. 

(i6)   Trains  of  Ideas 

The  mental  processes  involved  in  free  reproduction  or  uncontrolled  asso- 
ciation made  early  contribution  to  experimental  psychology.  They  furnished 
Galton/  as  he  walked  along  Pall  Mall  and  noted  the  ideas  that  came  into 
his  mind  as  he  scrutinized  successive  objects  that  caught  his  eyes,  material 
which  he  learned  to  subject  to  measurement.  They  are,  of  course,  employed 
for  mental  diagnosis  in  the  famous  "word-association"  test;  and  they  have 
been  employed  in  unbroken  series  of  from  lo  to  lOO  words"  for  the  study 
of  association  (Cattell  and  Bryant^),  of  effect  of  immediate  environment 
upon  association  (Flournoy^),  of  community  of  ideas  of  men  and  women 
(Jastrow,  °  '  Nevers,"  Calkins,*  Tanner,*),  of  individual  differences  in  mental 
processes  (Secor,^"  Binet")  ;  hut  they  have  also  been  used  in  unbroken  series 
for  determining  rate  of  mental  activity  (Wissler,"  Thompson,^'  Brown"). 
In  our  test  (see  p.  8i)  2-minute  series  were  written  after  the  stimulus 
words :  "horse,"  "potato,"  "flute." 

Since  most  of  the  individual  scores  run  up  to  about  the 
maximum  speed  in  writing,  it  may  be  presumed  that  in  this 
test,  when  the  ideas  are  recorded  by  the  reagent,  reproduction 
is  seriously  limited  by  recording.     Even  were  the  phrases  and 


^  Galton :    Psychometric  experiments.    Brain.     1879-1800.    2:151. 
^  Vid.  Whipple :     Manual  of  mental  and  physical  tests.     1910.     Test  33,  pp. 
3i3ff. 

Cattell  and  Bryant:   Mental  association  investigated  by  experiment.    Mind. 
i4:23off. 

*  Flournoy :  De  Taction  du  milieu  sur  I'ideation.  Annee  Psych.  1894 
i:i8off. 

"Jastrow:    A  study  in  mental  statistics.     New  Review.     1891.     5 :559ff. 

*  Nevers :  Dr.  Jastrow  on  community  of  ideas  of  men  and  women.  Psych 
Rev.     1895.     2  -.^^i^. 

'  Jastrow :    Community  of  ideas  of  men  and  women.     Psych.  Rev.     18 
3:68ff. 

*  Calkins :  Community  of  ideas  of  men  and  women.  Psych.  Rev.  1896 
3 :426ff . 

"  Tanner :  The  community  of  ideas  of  men  and  women.  Psych.  Rev.  1896 
3:S48ff. 

^*  Secor :  Visual  reading :  A  study  in  mental  imagery.  Am.  Jr.  Psych 
1899-1900.     ii:225ff. 

"  Binet :    L'fitude  experimentale  de  I'intelligence.     1903.     P.  309. 

"  Wissler :  Correlation  of  mental  and  physical  tests.  Psych.  Rev.  Mon. 
1901.    3:  No.  6,  p.  8. 

"  Thompson :  Psychological  norms  in  men  and  women.  Univ.  Chicago 
Contrib.  to  Phil.     1903.    Pp.  looff. 

"  Brown :  Some  experimental  results  in  correlation  of  mental  abilities, 
Br.  Jr.  Psych.     1910.     3 :3o6. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  IS^ 

words  spoken,  the  process  would  be  similarly  limited  in  speed. 
Scores,  therefore,  do  not  so  much  show  rapidity  of  reproduction 
as  rapidity  of  expression  and  regularity  of  reproduction.  Anc| 
since  the  whole  field  of  the  reagent's  experience  is  available 
for  reproduction,  with  all  the  grades  of  liability  for  recall, 
variation  in  regularity  is  inevitable ;  nor  does  it  seem  that  variable 
attention  rather  than  direction  of  'leads'  into  various  fields 
of  experience  is  the  greater  cause  of  variation. 

Initial  efficiency  ranged  from  55  to  100  ideas  for  the  six 
minutes. 

Qualitatively,  some  interesting  facts  were  presented : 

(a)  The  'Aufgabe'  was  not  the  same  for  all  reagents, 
although  instructions  and  external  conditions  of  the  experiment 
were  uniform.  The  usual  method  was  to  begin  with  the  ide^ 
suggested  by  the  stimulus-word  and  follow  the  course  suggested 
by  the  last  word  until  new  'leads'  would  develop  from  some 
prominent  member  of  the  last  series,  or  'story,'  thus  intro- 
ducing a  new  'story,'  etc.  But  SI.  bound  himself  to  record 
only  ideas  related  directly  to  the  stimulus-word,  and  gave 
second  place  to  the  suggestion  of  recorded  ideas;  and  Wf.  fol- 
lowed an  intermediate  course  approaching  closely  Sl.'s  method. 

(b)  Most  of  the  reagents  find  that  of  the  flood  of  memories 
and  images  only  a  few,  usually  the  most  prominent,  can  be 
recorded. 

(c)  The  'stories'  from  which  the  constellations  of  ideas  are 
chosen  for  recording  are  related  to  various  periods  of  the 
reagent's  experience  and  tend  to  fall  upon  the  same  periods 
of  experience,  for  all  stimulus-words  given  in  one  sitting,  bu^ 
upon  different  periods  for  the  same  stimulus-word  given  upon 
different  days.  This  merely  indicates  i )  the  organization  of 
experience,  in  cross-section;  and  2)  the  flux  of  experience,  in 
longitudinal-section.  Ms.  in  her  first  test  drew  mainly  upon 
experience  of  her  childhood;  in  her  final  test,  upon  those  of 
recent  years  and  days. 

(d)  The  remote  and  recent  experiences  are  sometimes  drawn 
upon  in  the  same  minute,  due  to  the  prominence  of  identical 
factors  in  their  memories;  emotional  or  cognitive. 


i6o  JOHN  EDGAR  CO  OVER 

(e)  Anxiety  about  one's  work,  or  great  interest  in  an  event, 
leads  all  trains  of  ideas  to  that  center  of  interest,  even  when 
approaches  are  repeatedly  inhibited  (Cr.,  Le.).  This  shows 
how  efficient  the  selective  influences  are,  in  the  control  of  the 
central  elements  of  consciousness.  Monomania  would  seem 
to  be  but  an  exaggeration  of  this  natural  process.  In  this  case 
the  control  seems  to  be  given  over  to  the  emotional  set  of 
consciousness.^"^ 

(17)   Extensive  Threshold  of  Visual  Attention.     Free 

The  number  of  letters  that  can  be  apprehended  in  a  momentary  exposure 
of  a  rectangle  containing  from  6  to  12  letters  has  been  thought  to  constitute 
a  measure  of  the  "extensive  threshold  of  attention"  (WundtO  or  the  number 
of  elements  that  can  be  simultaneously  grasped  by  consciousness.  The  time 
of  presentation  is  usually  about  o.i  seconds,  less  than  the  eye-reaction  time, 
in  order  to  limit  apprehension  to  a  single  fixation  of  vision;  but  owing  to  the 
persistence  of  the  after-image  for  about  0.25  seconds  (Schumann,*  Hylan,' 
Messmer'*)  and  to  the  visual  memory  after-image  that  may  appear  a  few 
seconds  later  (Schumann''),  the  attention  may  fluctuate  successively  over  the 
elements  so  held,  thus  augmenting  unduly  the  measure  of  the  threshold  of 
attention  and  relating  it  to  the  'memory-span'  for  successively  presented  let- 
ters. Wundt^  warns  the  reagent  to  avoid  this  error  through  introspectively 
distinguishing  between  the  simultaneous  and  the  successive  activities.  The 
test  has  been  used  to  measure  visual  perception  and  attention  (Griffing'')  or 
the  range  of  visual  attention  (Whipple**).  In  our  test  12-consonant-rectangles 
were  presented  for  about  o.i  sec.  (85  sigma)  ;  reproduction  was  required 
after  a  free  interval  of  5  seconds   (see  p.  81). 


*Wundt:  Grundriss  der  Psychologie.  lote  Auf.  1911.  Sec.  15,  Par.  6  (pp. 
2S4ff.)  ;   also   Grundziige   der   Physiologischen   Psychologie.     5te   Auf.     1902. 

III:35iff. 

*  Schumann :  Die  Erkennung  von  Buchstaben  und  Worten  bei  momentaren 
Beleuchtung.  Bericht  u.d.  I.  Kongress  f.  Exp.  Psych.  1904.  34-40;  also 
Psychologie  des  Lesens.  Bericht  u.d.  II.  Kongress  f.  Exp.  Psych.  1906. 
S.  174- 

"Hylan:  The  distribution  of  the  attention.  Psych.  Rev.  1903.  10:373, 
498. 

**  Messmer :  Zur  Psychologie  des  Lesens  bei  Kindern  und  Erwachsenen. 
Archiv  f.  d.  ges.  Psych.    1903-4,  Bd.  2,  S.  206. 

*  Griffing :  On  the  development  of  visual  perception  and  attention.  Am. 
Jr.  Psych.    1895.    yayyii. 

'Whipple:  Effect  of  practice  upon  range  of  visual  attention  and  of  visual 
apprehension.     Jr.  Ed.  Psych.     1910.     i  :249ff. 

^""This  test  furnishes  a  good  diagnosis  of  the  reagent's  experience  at  the 
time  it  is  taken.  Repeated  tests  would  make  it  quite  possible  to  characterize 
the  reagent's  mental  life.  A  person  could  not  in  a  briefer  or  more  efficient 
way  keep  a  diary  of  his  real  interests  than  by  this  two-minute  test,  accom- 
panied by  a  commentary. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  i6i 

Analysis  of  processes  involved  in  the  work  of  this  test  was 
made  under  the  head  of  Training  Results,  some  pages  back 
(pp.  82ff.)  ;  only  a  general  indication  of  the  fact  of  variability 
of  processes,  therefore,  need  be  made  here. 

(a)  The  field  of  the  attention  may  vary  from  the  whole  card 
to  a  line  or  to  a  few  spaces.  In  the  first  case,  vague  imagery 
makes  up  the  bulk  of  the  material  dealt  with;  in  the  second, 
both  clear  and  vague  are  entertained;  in  the  third,  only  clear 
imagery. 

(b)  The  type  of  imagery  may  determine  the  process:  If  the 
visual  impression  is  immediately  converted  into  kinaesthetic  or 
kinaesthetic-auditory  imagery,  reproduction  is  largely  limited  to 
letters  clearly  seen;  if  the  visual  impression  is  held  for  a  while, 
before  being  converted,  more  dimly  seen  letters  become  fixed. 

(c)  If  the  attitude  toward  vague  imagery  is  encouraging, 
some  unrecognizable  imagery  'matures'  into  letters,  the  record 
of  which  the  score  often  justifies. 

(d)  If,  in  recall,  disparate  imagery  supplements  itself  on  sepa- 
rate letters,  more  letters  are  recorded. 

(e)  Some  distraction  seemed  peculiar  to  the  test:  Readiness 
of  the  naming  process  was  not  at  times  satisfactory  because 
of  low  reproductivity  of  the  letter-names;  to  some  reagents 
some  combinations  of  letters  were  retarding  because  of  the  non- 
euphonious  pronunciation  of  their  names ;  to  some,  special  letters 
(significant  or  disagreeable)  retarded  the  process;  several  times 
exposures  were  completely  missed  by  winking. 

Introspections  show  that  the  process  varied  with  each  reagent 
in  each  test,  and  sometimes  considerably  between  tests. 

There  was  a  general  effort  to  convert  the  visual  impression 
or  visual  imagery  into  kinaesthetic  imagery  or  impression  (in- 
cipient pronunciation)  ;  this  conversion  reduces  reproduction  to 
a  'rote'  process,  which  doubtless  is  the  line  of  least  resistance 
in  memorizing.  Introspection  says :  "First  the  imagery  is  very 
intense,  visual,  which  I  convert  into  kinaesthetic  (verbal)  ;  then 
I  repeat  rapidly,  almost  as  one  word,  and  this  is  accompanied 
by  weak  visual  imagery.  Then  I  seem  to  feel  sure  of  the 
letters — they  seem  to  lie  on  my  tongue  and  are  less  full  of 
meaning  than  at  first"  (Rt.).  "After  repeating  letters  I  felt 
confident  that  I  had  them;  they  would  not  fly  away"   (Wf.). 


i62  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

In  practice,  the  moment  of  this  conversion  was  adjusted  by 
the  necessity  of  fixing  many  distinct  impressions  before  they 
got  away,  and  the  necessity  of  permitting  them  to  mature  more 
clearly  in  order  to  be  either  cognized  or  held  in  visual  imagery 
in  sufficiently  stable  form  to  remain  while  fixing  others  by 
naming.  The  shifting  of  this  moment  was  necessitated  by 
the  varying  grades  of  clearness  of  the  imagery,  and  inexpert 
shifting  was  fatal  to  the  score.  Better  coordination  of  processes 
here  resulted  through  practice,  and  variation  in  methods  as 
indicated  above  must  be  credited  with  considerable  variation 
between  individual  reagents,  resultant  upon  this  particular 
practice  effect. 

Initial  capacities  varied  in  average  scores  from  4.1  to  9.1 
points  (3  points  to  a  correctly  placed  letter),  and  divide  the 
reagents  into  four  groups :   9,  8,  6,  5. 

Improvement  in  per  cent  upon  initial  capacity,  for  the  reagents 
who  retained  in  their  final  tests  their  old  methods,  was: 


Regular 

1st  Control 

26.  Control 

Group  I. 

He. 

12 

Group  2. 

Le. 
Rt. 

58 
10 

Wf.     21 

Ty.     4 

Group  3. 

Al. 
Cr. 

45 
42 

Group  4. 

SI. 
Ly. 

25 
14 

Al.  differed  from  the  other  reagents  in  attending  consistently 
to  the  whole  card. 

Three  reagents  made  radical  changes  in  their  processes  in 
the  final  test:  Mn.,  who  trained  18  days  on  this  work;  and 
Ms.  a  control  reagent,  changed  from  attending  to  the  whole 
card  to  attending  to  limited  parts  of  it,  usually  the  first  line. 
Dn.  changed  from  intentionally  varied  methods  in  the  first  test, 
involving  attending  to  the  whole  card,  limiting  the  field  in 
various  ways,  and  closing  one  eye  and  then  the  other  to  see  if 
a  clearer  impression  could  not  be  obtained,  to  a  regular  method 
of  restricting  the  field  and  of  binocular  vision.  These  changes 
were  advantageous:  Group  4.  Mn.  147%,  Ms.  47%;  Group  5. 
Dn.  39%. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  163 

That  great  difference  in  the  score  results  from  variation  in 
the  extent  of  the  field  attended  to,  is  illustrated  by  individual 
scores  made  by  Ms.  in  her  first  test.  In  the  first  six  experiments, 
with  attention  upon  the  whole  card,  she  made  no  score  above 
4  points;  in  the  last  four  experiments,  with  the  field  restricted 
to  the  upper  right-hand  corner,  she  made  no  score  below  8 
points.  Mn.'s  great  gain  is  based  upon  those  six  experiments, 
for  the  averages  of  the  scores  of  the  last  four  experiments  in  her 
first  test  is  higher  than  the  average  of  either  the  last  four  or  all 
of  the  experiments  of  her  final  test. 

The  results  of  this  test  offer  several  anomalies  which  indicate 
the  futility  of  merely  quantitative  treatment  of  work  of  this 
kind.  Ms.,  a  control  reagent,  shows  greater  gain  than  does 
Al.,  who  trained  on  this  work  for  8  days;  besides  (a)  the 
difference  in  capacity,  indicative  of  difference  in  kind  of  work, 
(b)  the  gain  is  exaggerated  by  the  per  cent  being  reckoned 
upon  lower  initial  capacity.  Wf.,  a  control  reagent,  shows  a 
greater  per  cent  of  gain  than  He. ;  although  their  initial  capacities 
are  not  so  unlike,  this  excess  of  gain  is  illusory,  since  in 
absolute  gain  He.  excells,  and  from  He.'s  greater  initial  capacity, 
it  is  conceivable,  improvement  is  more  difficult  to  make. 

Cr.  and  possibly  He.  are  the  only  reagents  who  appear  to 
have  brought  to  the  test  any  advantage  from  their  training; 
both  improved  more  than  the  other  reagents  who  did  not  train 
in  this  work,  in  regular  performance  indicative  of  more  constant 
conditions  of  attention. 

(18)   Same.     With  Distraction 

Adding  four  digits  during  an  interval  of  5  seconds  between 
perception  and  recording  is  a  doubtful  distraction,  ranging  from 
o  to  59%.  It  was  but  negligible  for  Mn.  in  both  tests;  for 
SI.,  Ly.,  and  Dn.  in  the  first  test,  and  for  He.  and  Al.  in  the 
final  test;  and  it  varied  between  the  two  tests  considerably  for 
all  the  reagents  except  Mn.,  Cr.,  and  Ty. 

The  chief  cause  of  variation  in  the  scores  (initial  capacity 
ranged  from  3.2  to  6.9  points,  and  final  capacity  from  2.8  to 
1 1.4  points)  was  the  conflict  between  the  visual  or  kinaesthetic- 


i64  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

auditory  imagery  in  which  the  letters  were  being  held  and  the 
kinaesthetic  imagery  of  the  partial  sums  in  adding.  Where  dis- 
traction was  overcome,  the  usual  method  was  to  quickly  name 
the  letters  and  thus  fix  them  in  kinaesthetic  imagery,  and  add 
the  numerals  at  leisure  from  auditory  images  after  they  had 
all  been  pronounced. 

(19)     Tapping 

Tapping  as  rapidly  as  possible  during  an  interval  of  from  5  seconds  to  2 
minutes,  with  a  pencil,  stilus,  or  telegraph  key,  has  served  as  a  test  for  vol- 
untary motor  ability  and,  with  the  longer  intervals,  for  fatigue  (Bryan,* 
Dresslar,"  Gilbert,'  Moore,*  Binet  et  Vaschide,''  Kirkpatrick,*  Bagley,'  Bolton,* 
Kelly,'  Thompson,^"  Burt,"  Wells'^),  and  has  been  standardized  by 
Wells"  and  Whipple."  Our  test  follows  Wells :  5  series  of  30",  with  2.5' 
rests.     {Vid.  p.  8rf.). 

Maximum  rate  of  voluntary  activity  as  expressed  in  tapping 
on  a  Morse  key  (adjusted  as  preferred  by  telegraph  operators — 
I  mm.  amplitude,  50-gram  tension)  seems  a  very  simple  process. 
But  our  results  show  it  to  be  variable  and  to  depend  upon  other 
important  factors  besides  attention  and  fatigue. 

Results  gave  the  "Total  Efficiency"  (average  number  of  taps 


*  Bryan:  On  the  development  of  voluntary  motor  ability.  Am.  Jr.  Psych. 
1892.    5:i23ff. 

^  Dresslar :  Some  influences  which  aflfect  rapidity  of  voluntary  movements. 
Am.  Jr.  Psych.     1892.    4:5i4ff. 

^Gilbert:  Researches  on  the  mental  and  physical  development  of  school- 
children.    Studies  from  Yale  Psych.  Lab.     1894.    2 148. 

*  Moore :    Studies  of  fatigue.    Studies  from  Yale  Psych.  Lab.    1895.    3  :92flf. 
"Binet  et  Vaschide:    Experiences  de  vitesse  chez  les  jeunes  gens.     Annee 

Psych.  1897.  4:200ff;  also  fipreuves  de  vitesse  chez  les  jeunes  gargons. 
ibid.    64ff. 

'Kirkpatrick:  Individual  tests  of  school  children.  Psych.  Rev.  1900. 
7  :274fif. 

'Bagley:  On  the  correlation  of  mental  and  motor  ability  in  school  children. 
Am.  Jr.  Psych.    1900-1.    I2:i95flf. 

*  Bolton :    Relation  of  motor  power  to  intelligence.     Am.  Jr.  Psych.     1903. 

14:354. 

*  Kelly :  Psychophysical  tests  of  normal  and  abnormal  children ;  a  compara- 
tive study.     Psych.  Rev.     1903.     io:345fif. 

"  Thompson :  Psychological  norms  in  men  and  women.  Univ.  Chicago 
Contrib.  to  Phil.    1903.    4:  No.  i.    I2ff. 

"Burt:  Experimental  tests  of  general  intelligence.  Br.  Jr.  Psych.  1909. 
3.132. 

"Wells:    A  neglected  measure  of  fatigue.    Am.  Jr.  Psych.     1908.     I9:345fif. 

"  Wells :    Normal  performance  in  the  tapping  test.     ibid.     347-483. 

"Whipple:    Manual  of  mental  and  physical  tests.     1910.    Test  10,  pp.  lOoflF. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  i6s 

per  series  of  30  seconds),  and  the  "Fatigue  Index"  (found  by 
dividing  the  average  of  the  last  five  intervals  of  5  seconds 
each,  of  the  first  series,  by  the  number  of  taps  in  the  first 
interval  of  5  seconds). 

The  manner  of  tapping  varied  between  the  different  reagents, 
with  respect  to  the  parts  of  the  arm,  forearm,  wrist,  hand, 
and  fingers,  put  in  vibration,  with  respect  to  the  amplitude 
of  vibration,  the  manner  of  grasping  the  key,  the  amount  of 
innervation  and  bodily  tension,  determination  to  resist  fatigue, 
and  accompanying  psychial  processes,  such  as  counting  the  taps 
in  groups.  And  it  varied,  in  a  less  degree,  in  an  individual 
reagent's  work. 

"Total  Efficiency"  ranged  from  176.8  to  245.8,  in  the  first 
test,  and  reagents  fall  into  five  groups:  246,  218,  205,  198,  180. 

Change  in  per  cent  of  initial  capacity,  was  as  follows : 


Regular 

1st 

Control 

2d  Control 

Group  I. 

Rt.     -I.S 

Group  2. 

He.     s-o 

Group  3. 

SI.      3.2 
Cr.     3.2 
Le.   -0.2 
Ly.  -2.6 
Mn.  -3.3 

Ms.    -1.3 

Group  4. 

Wf.  -1.2 

Group  5. 

Me.    0.6 
Wx.    1.2 

The  changes  in  the  table  may  indicate  changes  in  fatigue, 
since  objective  fatigue  is  said  to  increase  the  tirne,^^"  and  the 
test  is  recommended  as  a  measure  of  fatigue  ;^^^  they  may  indi- 
cate changes  in  the  capacity  of  attention  which  opposes  fatigue; 
or  they  may  be  due  to  both  these  causes  as  modified  by  others. 

That  the  last  conjecture  is  sometimes  true  is  shown  by  the 
results  of  Rt.,  Le.,  and  SI.  Rt.'s  practice  curves  of  the  two 
tests  are  precisely  the  converse  of  each  other;  his  first  curve 
shows  great  practice-effect  in  the  second  series,  reaching  a 
maximum  in  the  third  series;  his  final  curve  begins  with 
phenomenal   speed    (267),   loses   greatly   in   the   second   series, 

"°  Moore :    Yale  Studies,  3  :95. 
"'Wells:  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  19:344. 


i66  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

reaching  minimum  in  the  third  series.  Le.'s  curves  are  similar 
but  show  less  practice-effect  and  loss.  Sl.'s  final  'fatigue  curve' 
is  inverted,  differing  from  all  others  in  showing  marked  practice- 
effect  up  to  the  fourth  interval.  Unfortunately,  introspections 
are  not  sufficiently  full  to  indicate  the  causes  of  these  variations. 

Usually  the  two  practice  curves  of  a  reagent  are  similar: 
Both  show  practice-effect  in  the  cases  of  five  reagents  (Mn.,  SI, 
Cr.,  Ms.,  Wx.);  no  practice-effect  in  the  case  of  four  reagents 
(Le.,  Ly.,  He.,  Wf.)  ;  and  loss  in  the  case  of  one  reagent  (Me.). 

Susceptibility  to  fatigue,  as  is  inversely  indicated  by  the 
"Fatigue  Index"  (see  p.  82),  ranged  from  87  to  97,  placing 
the  reagents  into  three  groups :  95,  90,  85.  Complete  resistance 
to  fatigue  would  be  100. 

Per  cent  of  change  in  resistance  to  fatigue  was : 

Regular  ist  Control  26.  Control 

Group  I.  SI.   18.S  Ms.     -5.1  Wx.  -1.9 

Le.   -9.5  Wf.  -1 1.7 

Group  2.  Ly.     5.6  Me.    -i.o 

Cr.     I.I 

He.  -4.4 

Rt.   -5.4 
Group  3.  Mn.  -3.5 

The  agreement  between  the  two  tables  showing  the  "state" 
of  fatigue  and  the  "susceptibility"  to  fatigue  in  the  cases  of 
Mn.,  Le.,  Rt,  SI.,  Cr.,  Ms.,  and  Wf.  indicates  a  reliability  for 
the  test  as  a  measure  of  fatigue  which  is  supported,  in  part  at 
least,  by  the  fact  that  the  final  tests  were  taken  at  the  end  of 
the  school-year  when  most  of  the  reagents  could  be  expected 
to  be  working  under  greater  fatigue  than  when  the  first  tests 
were   taken. 

But  there  are  disturbing  influences:  He.  gained  5%  in  "Total 
Efficiency"  and  lost  4.4%  in  resistance  to  fatigue;  Ly.  lost  2.6% 
in  "Total  Efficiency"  and  gained  5.6%  in  resistance  to  fatigue; 
SI.  gains  in  both,  but  made  in  his  final  test  the  remarkable 
"Fatigue  Index"  of  115,  which  is  supported  by  his  remarkable 
'fatigue  curve'  drawn  from  the  averages  of  the  respective 
intervals  in  all  series  of  the  final  test,  which  shows  a  marked 
practice-effect. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  167 

No  relation  between  the  results  of  this  test  and  the  training 
or  improvement  in  attention  is  evident. 

f.  Extent  of  Variability 

In  the  preceding-  analyses  of  processes  it  was  shown  (a) 
that  in  almost  every  test  individual  reagents  differed  from  each 
other,  often  greatly,  in  the  way  in  which  they  performed  the 
work  of  the  test;^^^  and  (b)  that  it  is  the  rule  for  the  individual 

^"That  individual  variation  in  kind  of  mental  work  performed,  when  re- 
agents set  themselves  to  the  same  objective  task,  is  not  peculiar  to  the  material 
or  the  method  of  our  tests,  may  be  seen  by  inspecting  any  report  of  investiga- 
tion in  which  the  mental  processes  of  the  different  reagents  are  subjected  to 
analysis.  The  contributions  to  individual  psychology  and  the  studies  of 
"imagery  type,"  as  has  already  been  noted  (foot-note  to  p.  69),  reveal  this 
qualitative  variability  in  every  class  of  mental  activity.  To  select  a  few  typical 
references  for  further  explication,  it  is  shown  specifically  in  discrimination 
of  clangs  (Whipple:  An  analytical  study  of  the  memory  image  and  the 
process  of  judgment  in  the  discrimination  of  clangs  and  tones.  Am.  Jr. 
Psych.  1901.  12:425-433,  448-452)  ;  in  memory  for  sounds  of  familiar  things, 
presented  by  a  graphophone  (Kuhlmann:  On  the  analysis  of  auditory  mem- 
ory consciousness.  Am.  Jr.  Psych.  1909.  20:i94ff),  in  memory  for  mean- 
ingless visual  forms  (Kuhlmann:  On  the  analysis  of  the  memory 
consciousness.  Psych.  Rev.  1906.  I3:3i6ff),  in  memory  for  nonsense-sylla- 
bles (Muller  und  Schumann:  Experimentelle  Beitrage  zur  Untersuchung  des 
Gedachtnisses.  Zeits.  f .  Psych.  1894.  6 :303-5  ;  Pentschew  :  Untersuchungen 
zur  Okonomie  und  Technik  des  Lernens.  Archiv  f.  d.  ges.  Psych.  1903. 
1 :4i7ff ;  Ebert  und  Meumann :  Ueber  einige  Grundfragen  der  Psychologic  der 
Uebungsphanomene  im  Bereiche  des  Gedachtnisses.  Archiv  f.  d.  ges.  Psych. 
1904.  4:iff;  von  Sybel :  Ueber  das  Zusammenwirken  verschiedener  Sinnesge- 
biete  bei  Gedachtnisleistungen.  Zeits.  f.  Psych.  1909.  53 :327ff),  in  memory  for 
various  material  (Bingham:  Memory.  Psych.  Rev.  1894  i:46iff;  Whitehead: 
A  study  in  visual  and  aural  processes.  Psych.  Rev.  1896.  3  :258ff ;  Gamble : 
Study  in  memorizing  various  materials  by  the  reconstruction  method.  Psych. 
Rev.  Mon.  1909.  No.  43);  in  word-association  (Galton:  Psychometric  ex- 
periments. Brain.  1879-80.  2:158;  Calkins:  Short  studies  in  memory  and  in 
association.  Psych.  Rev.  1898.  5:460;  Mayer  und  Orth :  Zur  qualitativen 
Untersuchung  der  Association.  Zeits.  f.  Psych.  1901.  26:  1-13;  Wreschner : 
Die  reproduktion  and  Assoziation  von  Vorstellungen.  Zeits.  f.  Psych.  Erg. 
Bd.  3.  1907,  S.  86ff;  Koflfka:  Ueber  Vorstellungen.  1911)  ;  in  imagery  of 
things  (Philippe:  Un  recensement  d'images  mentales.  Rev.  Philos.  1897. 
44:510;  Lay:  Mental  imagery  experimentally  and  subjectively  considered. 
Psych.  Rev.  Mon.  1898.  No.  7 ;  Slaughter :  A  preliminary  study  of  mental 
images.  Am.  Jr.  Psych.  1902.  I3:526ff)  ;  in  spelling  (Abbott:  On  the  analysis 
of  the  memory  consciousness  in  orthography.    Psych.  Rev.  Mon.     1909.     No. 


i68  JOHN  EDGAR  CO  OVER 

reagent  to  vary  his  processes  while  at  work  on  a  test  and  often 
to  radically  change,  in  the  final  test,  the  methods  of  work 
employed  in  the  first. ^^^  What  the  variations  in  processes  were 
has  been  shown  in  some  detail. 

Some  indication  of  the  extent  of  radical  change  in  method 
may  be  indicated  by  the  following  table  which  lists  the  cases 
of  such  change  when  it  occurred  between  the  first  and  final  tests : 


Tests 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

8 

9 

ID 

13 

17 

Total 

No.  of  reagents 

II 

12 

12 

12 

II 

lO 

12 

12 

12 

12 

ii6 

No.  Changed 

6 

5 

4 

o 

2 

6 

4 

8 

5 

3 

43 

The  table  shows  that  in  the  ten  tests  in  which  the  results  were 
the  more  regular,  of  ii6  difference-scores  4J  {35%)  were 
affected  by  change  in  methods  between  the  first  and  final  tests. 

The  changes  are  distributed  over  the  reagents  as  follows: 
Regular — Mn.  5,  Le.  5,  Rt.  i,  SI.  2,  Ly.  3,  He.  3,  Cr.  4,  Al.  i ; 
I  St  Control — Ms.  8,  Wf.  4;  2d  Control  reagents — 3,  and  4; 
which  indicates  that  some  reagents  are  more  prone  than  others 
to  radically  change  their  methods  of  work. 

Introspections  for  some  of  the  tests  (No.'s  6,  7,  19)  were  not 
sufficiently  full  in  detail  to  indicate  what  the  changes  were, 
although  large  variability  among  the  scores  of  the  series  of 
which  the  tests  were  composed  indicated  that  they  occurred; 


44:i27ff.).  For  especially  good  analyses  the  reader  is  referred  to  Binet 
(L'fitude  Experimentale  de  I'intelligence.  1903.  Pp.  282,  246,  306-7),  Segal 
Ueber  den  Reproductions  Typus  und  das  Reproduzieren  von  Vorstellungen. 
Archiv  f.d.  ges.  Psych.  1908.  I2:i75ff),  and  particularly  Miiller  (Zur  Analyse 
der  Gedachtnistatigkeit  u.d.  Vorstellungsverlaufes.  Zeits.  f.  Psych.  Erg.  Bd. 
5,  1911 ;  8,  1913).  The  evidence  in  these  references  is  based  almost  wholly 
upon  analysis  of  adult  introspections;  but  it  seems  highly  probable  that 
functional  variability  is  also  extensive  among  children.  Binet  (op.  cit.)  found 
this  true  of  his  two  daughters,  and  Winch  (The  faculty  doctrine,  correlation, 
and  educational  theory.  Jr.  of  Phil.  Psych,  and  Sci.  Methods.  1911.  8:377) 
infers  it  from  the  fact  that  the  coefficient  of  correlation  was  low  for  the 
early  series  of  learning  while  it  was  high  for  the  late  series,  a  fact  which 
when  found  by  Hollingworth  (Individual  differences  before,  during  and  after 
practice.  Psych.  Rev.,  1914,  21 :8)  with  naive  adult  reagents,  was  used  to 
show  "that  we  are  not,  in  early  trials,  measuring  the  same  thing  with  all 
performers." 

"'  Change  in  processes  during  practice  in  discussed  on  pp.  I76ff. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  169 

and  the  results  were  so  extremely  irregular  in  some  of  the 
other  tests  (No.'s  11,  12,  14,  15,  16,  18)  that  any  statistical 
treatment  of  them  seemed  useless. 

The  extent  of  variability  between  reagents  may  be  shown  by 
the  extent  of  the  range  of  initial  capacity  for  each  test.  If 
this  is  reckoned  in  per  cent  of  the  lowest  average  (the  highest 
capacity  for  a  time-unit;  the  lowest  for  a  work-unit),  we  get 


the  following 

table 

I. 

60 

5- 

86 

10. 

149 

16. 

82 

* 

135 

6. 

8S 

12. 

425 

17- 

122 

2. 

150 

7- 

70 

13. 

76 

18. 

115 

3- 

204 

8. 

133 

14. 

135 

19. 

39 

4- 

33 

9- 

133 

IS- 

452 

** 

11 

*Relative  variation  of  reaction  time. 
**Fatigue  Index. 

In  Test  I  the  range  of  initial  capacity  in  reaction  time  was 
60%  of  the  highest  capacity;  in  relative  variability  135%.  In 
Test  8  the  range,  in  memory  of  sounds,  was  133%  of  the  lowest 
capacity.  (Uncertainty  in  scoring  ruled  out  the  results  of 
Test  11). 

The  range  in  initial  capacities  is  usually  large.  In  only  three 
cases  is  it  below  50%  of  the  lowest  average;  in  six  cases  it  is 
between  50%  and  100%;  in  eight  cases  between  100%  and 
200%;  in  one  case  204%  and  in  two  cases  over  400%.  Thus, 
in  over  half  of  the  tests  the  highest  initial  capacity  is  more  than 
double  the  lowest.  ^^"^ 

"*Our  tests  are  not  peculiar  in  showing  frequent  wide  ranges  in  initial 
capacity.  On  p.  67  we  had  occasion  to  refer  to  Sleight's  (op.  cit.  410-41 1) 
test  on  "points";  the  range  in  initial  capacities  for  the  three  schools  is  shown 
by  Table  I  to  be  27-93,  32-129,  23-132,  respectively.  Binet's  (L'fitude  experi- 
mentale  de  I'intelligence.  236ff)  two  daughters  upon  the  test  of  marking  out 
the  letters  a,  e,  d,  r,  s,  from  French  text  made  initial  scores  of  23.1  and  53.4 
respectively;  and  his  six  dull  and  five  bright  boys  upon  the  same  test  (At- 
tention et  Adaptation.  364ff)  ranged  from  61-165  and  68-138  respectively. 
Ebert  und  Meumann's  (op.  cit.  15,  47ff)  six  reagents  ranged  in  memory  span 
for  numbers  5-9,  in  learning  nonsense-syllables  13-41  presentations,  note-form 
symbols  25-60,  sickle-form  symbols  33-75-  Thorndike  and  Woodworth's 
(op.  cit.  253ff,  385,  556)  reagents  ranged  in  average  error  in  estimating  areas, 
7.7-24.2,  io.s-28,  9-21.9,  5-47-8,  12.6-47.4,  4-5-I47,  20.1-37.8,  23.7-62.6,  etc.;  and  in 


I/O 


JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 


Initial  capacity,  as  the  term  has  been  used  in  these  pages, 
denotes  the  average  of  the  scores  of  the  series  of  experiments 
constituting  the  first  test.  And  since  the  results  of  all  the  tests, 
except  No.'s  2,  3,  11,  15  and  16,  were  made  up  of  averages 
of  from  four  to  ten  scores  of  individual  experiments  or  of 
series  of  experiments,  the  variation  in  initial  capacity  as  here 
represented  is  not  as  great  as  would  be  shown  had  the  initial 
scores  been  selected. 

The  result  of  (a)  change  in  processes  between  first  and  final 
tests  and  (b)  the  variability  in  initial  capacity  is  a  great  reduc- 
tion in  the  strictly  comparable  difference-scores  between  the 
eight  regular  and  the  four  control  reagents. 

If  the  number  of  cases  is  selected  from  the  tables  reproduced 
in  the  discussion  of  The  Test  Results  above  (pp.  io6ff.),  we 
get  the  following  table : 


2xp. 

Groups 

Group 

Regular 

1st  Control 

2d  Control 

Total 

I. 

4 

2 

2 

I 

0 

II 

2. 

6 

0 

0 

0 

0 

12 

3- 

4 

4 

4 

I 

0 

12 

4- 

4 

I 

2 

I 

I 

12 

s. 

3 

I 

4 

I 

0 

II 

6. 

3 

I 

I 

2 

0 

II 

2 

5 

0 

I 

3 

I 

0 

I 

7. 

3 

I 

2 

I 

0 

II 

2 

3 

I 

0 

3 

I 

0 

2 

' 

8. 

4 

0 

0 

0 

10 

9- 

4 

2 

3 

0 

I 

12 

10. 

4 

0 

0 

0 

12 

»3. 

4 

2 

I 

I 

0 

12 

17. 

4 

2 

2 

I 

I 

12 

19. 

5 

3 

5 

I 

0 

II 

Total  36  12  9  149 

To  interpret  the  table,  variation  in  initial  capacity  classified  the  reagents  in 
Experiment  i  into  4  groups ;  the  only  results  of  both  regular  and  control 
reagents  to  fall  within  a  single  group  were  two  of  the  regular  and  one  of  the 
1st  control  reagents  in  Group  2:11  reagents  took  the  test. 


time   in   marking   out   words,    170-232,    175-306.      Culler's    (Interference    and 
adaptability.     Archives  of  Psych.     1912.    3:  No.  24:16)  nine  reagents  in  the 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  171 

The  tables  of  relative  variation  in  reaction  time  (of  Test  i) 
and  the  "Fatigue  Index"  (of  Test  19)  are  omitted  in  this  table. 

The  aggregate  of  cases  in  which  the  difference-scores  fall 
into  some  group  in  which  comparison  can  be  made  is  57  (38%) 
out  of  a  total  of  149. 

And  if  the  averages  of  tests  in  which  the  results  were 
sufficiently  irregular  to  be  omitted,  are  combined  with  these, 
out  of  a  total  of  2ig  difference-scores  we  have  hut  57  {26%) 
which  are  comparable. 

^.    Causes  of  Variability 

The  more  general  causes  of  variability  in  a  reagent's  work 
were  conditions  of  health,  relative  freshness  or  fatigue,  emo- 
tional conditions,  attitude  toward  the  work  of  the  test,  etc. 
Incidental  causes  occasionally  occurred  such  as,  cold  hands  in 
reaction  tests,  winking  at  the  moment  of  a  rapid  exposure, 
accidents  in  manipulation  of  keys,  or  in  handling  pen  and 
paper  in  recording,  unusual  distraction,  influence  of  preceding 
laboratory  work  (He.  and  Wf.  in  reaction  to  sound),  mental 
practice  (Wf,  in  typewriter  reaction),  etc.  More  specific 
causes  varied  in  accordance  with  the  nature  of  the  work  in 
the  test,  but  may  be  described  in  general  terms  as,  voluntary 
or  undesigned  shifts  of  the  attention  to  various  elements  of 
the  processes  engaged,  changes  in  the  extent  of  the  distribution 
of  the  attention  over  part-processes  and  their  coordination,  con- 
structing of  more  adequate  methods,  and  practice-effect  in 
dropping  out  of  the  process  unessential  factors,  in  heightening 
sensitivity,  discrimination,  reproduction,  habituation  to  distrac- 
tion, and  in  building  up  habits  of  higher  order. 

To  these  causes  are  due  the  serrated  aspect  of  the  practice 
curve  of  a  reagent  in  any  of  the  tests. 

The  causes  of  variation  in  the  results  of  different  reagents 
must  lie  in  individual  variation  with  respect  to  the  factors 
described  above,  and  to  others  in  addition  to  them.     An  impor- 

first  group  ranged  in  averages  of  the  first  five  experiments  in  the  typewriting 
practice,  20.8-49;  the  7  reagents  of  the  second  group,  33.2-131 ;  and  the  8  re- 
agents of  the  third  group,  28-60.  These  few  samples  show  the  tendency  which 
is  likely  to  be  found  in  any  table  of  initial  capacities  in  mental  tests. 


172  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

tant  place  among  the  latter  must  be  given  to  the  'Aufgabe,' 
or  the  task  held  in  the  mind  of  the  reagent:  Simple  reaction, 
for  example,  may  be  'sensorial'  or  'muscular' ;  and  word- 
completion  may  involve  self-imposed  limitations;  etc. 

Radically  different  methods  of  work  account  for  large  dif- 
ferences in  intial  capacity  or  in  per  cent  of  improvement  (even 
when  based  upon  equal  initial  ability). 

The  low  initial  capacity  of  SI.  in  card-sorting  was  due  to 
marked  variation  in  kind  of  work  from  the  other  reagents — 
his  difficult  map-scheme  used  for  discriminating  the  cards  and 
for  locating  the  compartments  was  the  prime  element  in  the 
difference. 

The  low  initial  capacities  of  Ly.  and  SI.  in  the  typewriter- 
reaction  were  owing  to  different  work,  the  prime  difference 
being  a  difficult  coordination  of  letter  and  key  which  interfered 
with  a  coordination  of  the  two  parts  of  the  process — 
discrimination,  and  choice  of  reaction. 

The  radical  difference  between  kinds  of  work  was  often 
pointed  out  in  the  discussion  of  Test  Results  and  the  effect 
upon  the  averages  shown.  Memory  of  sounds  was  effected  by 
kinaesthetic-auditory  imagery  of  the  names,  by  seizing  the 
series  as  chimes,  or  by  associating  the  number-names  with  a 
visible  series;  12-letter-rectangles  were  learned  through  a 
combination  of  kinaesthetic  and  visual  imagery,  or  through  rep- 
resentative imagery  (associations).  In  the  distraction  tests 
(No.'s  14,  18)  the  difference  in  the  effect  of  the  distraction 
depended  upon  variable  method  in  avoiding  conflict  between  the 
visual  or  kinaesthetic  imagery  of  the  retained  letters  and  the 
kinaesthetic  imagery  of  the  partial  sums  in  the  adding  process. 
And  the  groups  into  which  the  reagents  were  classified  according 
to  initial  ability,  in  the  typewriter-reaction  test,  were  shown  to  be 
valid  by  analysis  of  the  kinds  of  work. 

Great  difference  in  per  cent  of  improvement  was  also  often 
shown  to  be  due  to  difference  in  kind  of  work.  Sl.'s  map-scheme 
in  card-sorting  and  Ly.'s  difficult  coordination  of  letter  and  key 
in  the  typewriter-reaction  test,  prohibited  rapid  improvement. 
The  anomalies  sometimes  found  belong  here :    such  as  the  gain 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  i73 

of  Ms.,  a  control  reagent,  in  Test  17,  which  was  greater  than 
that  of  Al.  who  trained  in  the  test  material  for  8  days, — they 
did  not  do  the  same  kind  of  work;  Al.  consistently  gave  atten- 
tion to  the  whole  card,  Ms.  to  a  limited  part  of  it ;  and  the  gain 
of  the  same  reagent  (Ms.)  in  Test  13,  which  was  greater  than 
that  of  either  of  the  two  reagents  who  trained  on  the  test 
material  for  18  days,' — she  changed  to  the  use  of  associations. 
As  to  the  source  of  the  more  specific  causes  of  variation,  it 
lies  in  part  in  the  practice  on  the  tests  themselves,  in  smaller 
part  in  the  training  (for  the  regular  reagents),  but  in  greater 
part  in  earlier  experience.  Change  in  the  process  seems  to  be 
effected  through  the  selective  function  of  the  attention,  by 
way  of  adaptation.  The  need  of  a  discriminating  mark  for 
the  cognition  of  the  symbols  on  the  cards  was  met  by  the 
selection  of  map-directions,  on  the  part  of  SI.,  from  his  school- 
room experience  and  the  relation  between  diameter  and  radius, 
on  the  oblique  pair  of  cards,  was  selected  from  the  geometrical 
experience  of  all  reagents  except  Le.  whom  the  pair  confused; 
the  schemes  of  classification  of  compartments  in  card-sorting, 
for  Wf.  and  Mn.,  and  of  keys  or  fingers  in  typewriter-reaction, 
for  Wf .,  were  adaptations  of  mathematical  relations ;  the  grasp- 
ing of  series  of  sounds  as  chimes,  in  memory  of  sounds,  was 
an  adaptation  of  musical  experience;  Isy.'s  'sensory  set'  of 
consciousness  in  typewriter-reaction  was  selected  from  her  train- 
ing-effects in  reaction  to  sound;  and  many  other  changes  of 
method  in  the  final  tests  were  due  to  the  selection  of  elements 
that  had  become  prominent  in  experience  since  the  first  tests, 
often  in  the  training  of  the  regular  reagents. 

h.  The  Practice  Curve 

It  was  pointed  out  that  the  difference-scores  of  two  reagents, 
even  when  initial  ability  had  been  the  same,  were  strictly  com- 
parable only  upon  the  assumption  that  the  respective  ways  of 
performing  the  task  were  equally  susceptible  to  practice-effect. 
The  fact  that  scores  of  different  reagents  measure  different 
processes  has  its  parallel  in  the  fact  that  scores  of  the  same 
reagent    measured    different   processes;    not    only    because    the 


174  JOHN  EDGAR  C DOVER 

reagent  changes  these  processes  at  random,  by  design  and  other- 
wise, in  order  to  hit  upon  a  more  adequate  method,  but  because 
practice-effect  itself  involves  change  in  processes.  This  was 
particularly  pointed  out  in  the  discussion  of  the  Training  Results 
(pp.  82ff.). 

The  scores  at  the  beginning  of  Al.'s  training  measured  letters 
clearly  seen;  at  the  end,  letters  'matured'  from  'fringe'  content 
of  consciousness.  The  conquest  of  the  'fringe'  content  was 
the  means  of  raising  the  scores  of  Mn.  and  Le.  by  supplement- 
ing the  maximum  perception  and  retention  of  clearly  seen 
letters,  and  was  the  proper  practice-effect  in  Al.'s  training.  Al, 
however,  had  not  recovered,  by  the  last  day  of  training,  from 
the  disastrous  effect  of  this  direction  of  effort,  upon  the  fixing 
and  retaining  of  clearly  seen  letters  which  contributed  his  highest 
score  on  the  third  day.  He  was  working  under  the  disadvantage 
of  striving  to  effect  coordination  of  these  part-processes  and  had 
not  yet  succeeded. 

The  early  scores  in  Rt.'s  training  in  learning  12-letter-rect- 
angles  measured  letters  recorded  from  kinaesthetic-auditory, 
or  kinaesthetic  imagery  alone  (see  Analysis  Curve,  Appendix 
B.  Fig.  17,  p.  293).  Then,  additional  letters  from  visual 
imagery  began  to  contribute  to  the  score  and  by  the  7th  day 
they  reached  their  maximum.  From  the  5th  day  "visual  asso- 
ciations" began  to  contribute  as  many  letters  as  did  the  visual 
imagery,  which  had  maintained  its  level.  The  scores  at  the 
beginning  of  the  training  measured  letters  from  one  kind  of 
imagery — homogeneous  letters, — at  the  end,  letters  from  four 
distinct  kinds  of  imagery — heterogeneotis  letters }'^^ 

How  this  change  in  the  material  measured  was  brought  about, 
illustrates  accurately  what  the  practice-effect  involves : 

Rt.  at  the  beginning  got  a  strong  visual  impression  of  the 
letters  and  then  converted  it,  by  pronouncing  the  letter-names, 
into  kinaesthetic-auditory  imagery  for  retention  and  reproduc- 
tion, repeating  letter-names  over  and  over  during  the  lo-second 

^■^  The  transition  from  simple  imagery  to  mixed  or  complex  imagery 
through  practice  in  memory  work  was  shown  by  von  Sybel  (Zeits.  f.  Psych. 
53:338). 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  175 

interval  between  perception  and  recording.  But  on  the  first 
day  he  found  that  he  could  economize  time  and  effort  by  con- 
verting the  stimulus  immediately  into  kinaesthetic-auditory 
imagery  and  by  giving  a  rhythm  to  the  repetition.  The  effort 
to  make  a  strong  visual  impression  was  dropped  out.  This 
simplification  of  method  was  accompanied  by  a  simplification 
of  the  kinaesthetic  imagery  itself  through  dropping  away  of 
the  auditory  component  which  formerly  supported  it.  If  visual 
imagery  found  place  at  all,  it  merely  supported  the  kinaesthetic 
upon  the  same  letters.  The  reagent  found  that  the  lo-second 
exposure  limited  the  kinaesthetic  method  of  fixing  the  letters 
adequately  for  recall  to  the  first  six  places.  But  after  repeti- 
tion had  facilitated  this  process  through  a  readier  recall  of 
letter-names  in  the  naming  process,  and  through  a  more  definite 
rhythm  in  fixing  the  letters  for  recall,  some  time  was  gained 
which  permitted  attention  to  note  other  letters ;  these  extra 
letters  were  recorded  from  visual  imagery.  This  was  the  first 
coordination  of  different  kinds  of  imagery  from  each  of  which 
different  letters  were  recorded.  This  two-fold  coordination  then 
gave  way  to  a  three-fold  coordination  in  which  additional  let- 
ters were  recorded  from  "visual  associations."  The  first  oc- 
currence of  the  associations  involved  the  letters  CP,  which 
as  soon  as  seen  stood  for  "Chemically  Pure."  When  record- 
ing, these  letters  were  found  to  be  very  vivid  by  reason  of 
their  association  with  the  familiar  phrase;  and  finding  asso- 
ciations became  a  method.  Another  three-fold  process  devel- 
oped through  the  habit  of  intensifying  the  visual  impression 
of  some  additional  letters  while  repeating  by  rote  the  kinaesthetic 
group;  when  recording,  it  was  found  that  other  less  vivid  letters 
could  be  recalled  from  visual  imagery  besides  those  which  had 
been  intensified  during  perception.  This  three-fold  process  con- 
sisted in  the  coordination  of  kinaesthetic  imagery,  intensified 
visual  imagery,  and  a  secondary  visual  imagery  which  seemed 
to  persist  in  its  own  strength.  By  the  loth  day  a  four-fold 
process  was  occasionally  employed  which  coordinated  all  the 
kinds  of  imagery  already  mentioned. 

Single-fold    imagery    was    dominant    during   the    first    three 


176  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

days;  two-fold  coordination  was  dominant  during  the  4th,  5th, 
and  6th  days;  three-fold  coordination  became  dominant  after 
the  7th  day;  and  four-fold  coordination  appeared  on  the  loth 
day  after  which  it  supplemented  the  three-fold  imagery  when 
associations  were  not  found  to  hold  sufficient  letters.  The 
single-fold  method  recurred  on  the  9th  and  14th  days;  both 
days  of  reduced  scores  {vid.  Analysis  Curves,  Appendix  B.  Fig. 
16,  p.  292). 

The  greatest  improvement  as  shown  by  the  practice  curve  was 
coincident  with  the  greatest  use  of  the  three-fold  and  four-fold 
methods;  that  is,  with  the  highest  coordination  of  the  different 
kinds  of  imagery.  And  the  rise  of  the  curve  is  dependent 
throughout  upon  the  increasing  use  of  the  auxiliary  forms  of 
imagery.  On  the  nth  and  12th  days,  when  the  practice-curve 
first  reached  its  higher  levels,  as  many  letters  were  reproduced 
from  the  auxiliary  imagery  as  from  the  kinaesthetic  imagery, 
while  on  the  first  three  days  less  than  a  fifth  as  many  were  so 
reproduced. 

Other  effects  of  training  were:  (i)  the  method  of  assigning 
to  associations  favorable  letters  other  than  those  occupying  the 
usually  preferred  7th  and  8tli  places  on  the  card,  (2)  the  method  of 
recording  the  letters  held  in  the  weakest  imagery  first,  and  (3) 
a  more  adequate  coordination  of  the  recording  and  reproducing 
part-processes  so  that  writing  down  some  of  the  letters  ceased 
to  be  a  distraction  on  account  of  which  other  letters  escaped 
recall. 

Per  cent  of  improvement  in  this  training  evidently  measures 
change  in  processes;  not  merely  the  more  radical  changes  at 
the  beginning,  involved  in  adaptation  to  a  new  kind  of  work, 
hut  those  smaller  and  more  orderly  changes  which  constitute 
practice-effect}'^^ 

"*  This  fact  of  change  in  processes  during  practice  is  amply  supported  by 
the  literature,  typical  references  of  which  follow:  Talbot  (An  attempt  to 
train  the  visual  memory.  Am.  Jr.  Psych.  1897.  8:414-7)  by  exercising  visual 
recall  improved  her  memory  which  made  more  frequent  use  of  visual  elements 
than  it  had  done  before.  Culverwell  (The  creation  of  a  memory.  Jr.  Exp. 
Ped.  1911-2.  1:160-1)  reports  an  interesting  case  of  improvement  through 
practice  in  changed  mode.  Change  in  processes  during  practice  was  shown  in 
reaction-time  to  words  by  Berger  (Ueber  den  Einfluss  der  Uebung  auf  geis- 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  177 

Practice-effect  in  the  tests  is  a  source  of  variability  in  the 
test-averages   of   different  reagents.     It  was  not   operative   in 

tige  Vorgange.  Phil.  Stud.  1889.  5:170-178);  in  simple  reaction-time  by 
Angell  and  Moore  (Reaction  time:  A  study  in  attention  and  habit.  Psych. 
Rev.  1896.  3:249-252);  in  discrimination  of  clangs  by  Whipple  (.A.n  analy- 
tical study  of  the  memory  image  and  the  process  of  judgment  in  the  discrim- 
ination of  clangs  and  tones.  Am.  Jr.  Psych.  1901.  12:448);  in  learning 
paired  associates  of  non-sense  syllables  by  von  Sybel  (Ueber  das  Zusammen- 
wirken  verschiedener  Sinnesgebiete  bei  Gedachtnisleistungen.  Zeits.  f.  Psych. 
1909.  S3  :338)  ;  and  in  memorizing  non-sense  syllables  by  Ebert  and  Meumann 
(Ueber  einige  Grundfragen  der  Psychologie  der  Uebungsphanomene  in  Ber- 
eiche  des  Gedachtnisses.  Archiv  f.d.  ges.  Psych.  1904.  4:202ff,  2ioff,  228). 
Philippe  (Sur  les  transformations  de  nos  images  mentales.  Rev.  Philos. 
1897.  43:492)  and  Bentley  (The  memory  image  and  its  qualitative  fidelity. 
Am.  Jr.  Psych.  1899.  11:47-8)  pointed  out  the  characteristics  of  instability 
and  mutability  of  imagery  which  would  affect  recurrent  processes  in  which  it 
plays  a  part,  and  Kuhlmann  (On  the  analysis  of  auditory  memory  conscious- 
ness. Am.  Jr.  Psych.  1909.  20:i94ff)  found  that  in  later  than  immediate 
recall  of  sounds  auxiliary  visual  imagery  became  more  frequently  the  means 
of  recall.  With  respect  to  changes  in  the  processes  of  recall  dependent  upon 
degree  of  learning  J.  R.  Angell  (Determination  of  mental  imagery.  Psych. 
Rev.  Mon.  1910.  No.  53:70)  wrote:  "If  I  am  obliged  to  repeat  the  words 
before  they  are  completely  learned,  my  recall  is  likely  to  be  dominated  by 
visual  processes.  On  the  other  hand  if  I  am  allowed  to  proceed  until  the 
learning  is  quite  perfect,  the  recall  is  likely  to  be  mainly  in  auditory-motor 
terms,  and  the  more  perfectly  automatized  the  act  becomes,  the  more  I  lose 
the  visual  element.  Judged  at  one  stage  of  the  process,  I  should  then  be  set 
down  as  a  visualizer;  judged  at  another  stage,  I  should  be  auditory-vocal- 
motor." 

But  the  most  conspicuous  cases  are  shown  in  studies  of  learning,  in  which 
well-defined  stages  are  related  to  the  curve  of  practice : 

Bryan  and  Harter :  Studies  in  the  telegraphic  language.  Psych.  Rev.  1897. 
4:27-53;  1899.     6:345-375. 

Swift:  Beginning  a  language.  A  contribution  to  the  psychology  of  learn- 
ing.    Studies  in   Phil,  and  Psych.   (Garman  volume)    1906.     297-313,  304ff. 

Book :  The  psychology  of  skill,  with  special  reference  to  its  acquisition  in 
typewriting.    Univ.  Mont.  Bull.    1908.    53:1-188. 

Swift:   Learning  to  telegraph.    Psych.  Bull.    1910.    7:149-153. 

Ordahl :  Consciousness  in  relation  to  learning.  Am.  Jr.  Psych.  1911. 
22:i58ff. 

Kline  and  Owens :  Preliminary  report  of  a  study  in  the  learning  process, 
involving   feeling   tone,   transference,    and    interference.     Psych.    Rev.     1913. 

20 :222-3. 

Cleveland:  The  psychology  of  chess  and  of  learning  to  play  it.  Am.  Jr. 
Psych.     1907.     18 :297. 


178  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

some  of  our  tests,  but  it  was  clearly  so  in  others.  If  it  was 
much  greater  in  the  first  than  in  the  final  test,  initial  capacity, 
as  expressed  by  the  average  score  of  the  first  test,  is  lower 
relatively,  than  in  the  case  of  about  equal  practice-effect  or  no 
practice-effect  in  the  first  and  final  tests;  the  difference-score 
will  be  relatively  too  large.  The  extent  to  which  this  source 
of  error  was  operative  in  our  tests,  as  well  as  the  frequency  of 
practice-effect  in  both  tests,  is  shown  by  the  following  table: 

Tests  I        4        5        6        7        8        9      lo      13       17      19      Total 

a.  4641201124328 

h.  05100200221  13 


a.  Much  greater  practice-effect  in  the  first  test  than  in  the  final. 

b.  Practice-effect  in  both  tests. 

In  these  eleven  tests  there  were  125  difference-scores;  28 
(22%)  of  them  are  too  large  because  of  the  greater  practice- 
effect  in  the  first  test;  and  practice-effect  occurred  in  both  first 
and  final  tests  in  13   (10%)  cases. 

The  distribution  of  the  cases  over  the  reagents  is  as  follows: 

Regular  Control 

a.        b.  a.       b. 


Mn. 

2 

3 

Le. 

4 

I 

Rt. 

2 

I 

SI. 

2 

0 

Ly. 

2 

I 

He. 

2 

I 

Cr. 

I 

2 

Al. 

I 

2 

Ms. 

4 

0 

Wf. 

2 

0 



4 

I 

— 

2 

I 

To  be  safe  in  the  comparison  of  difference-scores,  such  tests 
should  be  chosen  as  are  free  from  the  rapid  practice-effect  of 
adaptation,  or  training  should  continue  until  initial  efficiency 
is  more  stable  and  its  quantitative  expression  more  reliable.^^"^ 

i.  General  Effect  of  Special  Practice 
After  seeking  to  avoid  error  by  making  the  difference-scores 
as  nearly  as  possible  fairly  comparable,  our  quantitative  data 

"^  For  further  discussion  of  this  matter,  see  p.  22if. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  179 

for  generalization  upon  the  general  effect  of  special  practice  of 
the  trained  reagents  are  greatly  reduced;  and  in  view  of  the  fact 
that  even  they  are  not  decisive,  our  generalizations  must  remain 
statements  of  probability. 

With  this  caution  in  mind  we  may  examine  the  cases  in 
which  training-effect  seemed  to  show  itself  in  improvement  in 
the  tests.     These  cases  are  collected  in  the  following  table: 

Training  ReaRents  Tests 

7*  9,     10. 


Tachistoscopic 

Mn. 
Le. 

I.     2, 
5.*  8. 

4,     6, 

Al. 

3,    4,* 

8,    9. 

Learning  12-letter-rectangles 

Rt. 

I*  5, 

6,    8, 

SI. 

7,  10. 

'Reaction  to  sound 

Ly. 

4,*  10, 

13- 

Memory  training 

He. 

4,*  6, 

9,  17- 

Cr. 

4,*  5, 

6,  17. 

*These  cases  were  influenced  by  greater  practice-effect  in  the  first  test. 

Common  elements  in  part-processes,  or  in  modes  of  attention, 

are  not  difficult  to  find: 

Training  on  the  tachistoscope  involved: 

quick  perception  (shared  by  tests  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  9,  10), 
keen  momentary  attention  (shared  by  tests  i,  6,  7), 
reproduction  of  imagery  (shared  by  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10), 
coordination  of  part-processes  (shared  by  1,4,  5,  6,  8,  9,  10). 

Training  in  learning  12-letter-rectangles  engaged 
quick  perception    (shared  by   i,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,   10), 
rapid  kinaesthetic  processes    (shared  by  8,  9,    10), 
apperceptive  grouping  (shared  by  9,  10), 
reproduction  of  imagery  (shared  by  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,   10). 
keen  momentary  attention  (shared  by  i,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10). 
keen  continuous  attention   (shared  by  5,  8,  9,  10), 
coordination  of  part-processes  (shared  by  i,  5,  6,  8,  9,  10). 

Training  in  reaction  to  sound  involved 
quick  perception  (4,  10,  13), 
keen  momentary  attention  (10,  13), 
quick  reaction  (4). 

Training  in  memory  engaged 

keen  perception    (4,   5,  6,  9,   17), 


i8o  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

apperceptive  grouping  (9,  17), 
reproduction  of  imagery   (4,  5,  6,  9,   17), 
continuous  attention  (4,  5,  6,  9). 

The  probable  cases  of  general  effect  listed  here  do  not  con- 
stitute a  complete  list  for  which  there  is  quantitative  evidence, 
for  cases  in  v^hich  great  improvement  was  in  part  contributed 
by  change  in  method  were  set  aside;  as  may  be  illustrated  by 
two  cases  of  Mn.  There  is  little  doubt  that  she  brought  to  the 
test  on  learning  12-letter-rectangles  great  advantage  from  her 
tachistoscopic  training,  yet  her  gain  (64%)  is  set  aside  because 
of  a  radical  change  in  her  method  induced  by  her  training; 
there  is  no  doubt  at  all  that  she  improved  in  her  training,  yet 
her  gain  (147%)  in  the  test  identical  with  it  was  for  the  same 
reason  set  aside. 

The  requirement  of  setting  such  cases  aside,  it  will  be  remem- 
bered, is  made  by  the  form  into  which  the  investigation  was 
cast:  the  ostensible  purpose  was  to  test  for  the  influence  of 
improved  conditions  of  attention,  and  scores  including  the  ad- 
vantage or  disadvantage  of  change  of  method  could  not  be 
used  to  measure  difference  in  the  capacity  of  attention.  Apart 
from  this  requirement,  however,  there  is  another  ground  for 
discarding  these  difference-scores,  which  challenges  their  value; 
evidently  their  service  is  largely  limited  to  determining  the 
relative  advantage  of  the  different  kinds  of  work. 

But  we  do  not  need  to  rely  upon  our  quantitative  data  for 
proof  of  general  effect  of  special  practice.  Introspections  indi- 
cate it  more  clearly  and  more  certainly  than  difference-scores 
can.  Not  only  are  methods  of  work,  and  systems  of  imagery, 
transferred  from  one  kind  of  work  to  another  where  they  are 
applicable,  as  the  methods  of  fixing  and  reproducing  12-letter- 
rectangles  were  carried  over  to  memory  of  consonants  serially 
presented  (Rt),  and  to  digits  simultaneously  presented  (Rt, 
SI.),  and  as  the  better  organization  of  associations  in  which 
letters  from  12-letter  rectangles  were  fixed  and  retained  after 
training  in  memory  (Cr.),  but  the  process  of  adaptation  to  the 
strange  work  of  the  test  consists  in  the  selection  and  application 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  i8i 

of  elements  of  former  experience  which,  when  acquired,  must 
always  have  been  'specific'  and  which  as  applied  are  always^ 
'general/  This  principle  is  not  only  true  of  the  exceptional 
and  somewhat  bizarre  cases  cited  to  illustrate  unusual  variations 
in  the  scores,  as  Sl/s  map-directions  in  card-sorting,  and  the 
grasping  of  series  of  sounds  as  chimes,  but  it  is  true  of  the 
usurol  and  regular  processes  of  learning  to  do  expertly  the  work 
of  the  test. 

The  general  effect  was  usually  advantageous,  as  was  often 
pointed  out  in  connection  with  discussion  of  change  of  method, 
under  Test  Results,  but  it  is  not  necessarily  so;  Ly.'s  'sensory 
set'  of  consciousness  carried  over  to  the  typewriter-reaction 
from  reaction  to  sound,  the  attempted  transference  of  training 
method  by  Rt.  and  SI.  to  commercial  signs  presented  in  the 
method  of  training,^^^  were  disadvantageous.  Wf.'s  complex 
scheme  in  typewriter-reaction,  and  Sl.'s  unwieldy  map-scheme 
in  card-sorting,  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  fact  of  negative 
influence. 

Introspections  indicate  that  the  'spread  of  training'  need  not 
be  conscious,^^®  as  may  be  illustrated  by  Cr.'s  improvement  in 
learning  12-letter-rectangles  which  was  largely  due  to  better 
organization  of  the  associations  used  to  represent  the  letters, 
a  prime  factor  in  the  memory-training,  yet  he  was  not  conscious 
of  applying  training-effect.  Indeed,  introspections  in  this  type 
of  experiment  are  not  of  value  because  they  assert  or  deny  the 
influence  of  training  upon  the  tests,  although  such  statements 
may  often  be  true,  but  because  they  describe  the  processes  en- 
gaged in  both  training  and  tests  fully  and  accurately  enough 
for  the  presence  or  absence  of  specific  influences  to  be  determined. 

j.  Conclusion 

Variability  in  the  mental  processes  engaged  by  the  reagent 
on  any  test  was  found  to  be  universal;  radical  change  in  the 

"'Agreeing  with  the  results  of  Sleight  {op.  cit.  p.  440)  that  elements  may 
not  be  available  where  the  whole  form  will  not  apply.  The  fact  seems  true 
particularly  when  the  coordination  of  part-processes  has  become  automatic 
or  mechanical. 

"'Again  in  agreement  with  Sleight  {op.  cit.  p.  440). 


i82  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

processes  between  the  first  and  final  tests,  for  the  ten  tests 
in  which  the  results  were  the  more  regular,  occurred  in  over 
a  third  of  the  i66  difference-scores  {vid.,  p.  i68). 

Great  variability  in  initial  capacity,  as  represented  by  the 
average  of  the  scores  of  the  first  test,  was  also  universal;  in 
twenty  tables,  there  were  but  three  cases  in  which  the  range  of 
variability  was  less  than  half  the  lower  average,  9  cases  were 
between  100  and  200%  of  it,  and  two  cases  were  over  400^ 
of  it  {vid.,  p.  169). 

The  effect  of  these  two  kinds  of  variability  was  to  reduce 
the  comparable  difference-scores  to  a  fourth  {md.,  p.  171). 

The  causes  of  variability  were  general,  such  as  health;  inci- 
dental, such  as  accident  in  manipulation  of  a  key  or  of  cards; 
and  specific,  such  as  are  involved  in  adaptation,  or  in  practice 
{vid.,  p.  171 ). 

Great  difference  in  the  scores  of  an  individual  and  great 
difference  in  initial  capacity  are  signs  of  great  difference  in 
kind  of  work  {vid.,  pp.  172), 

The  source  of  the  more  specific  causes  of  variation  lies  in 
part  in  the  practice-effect  of  the  tests,  in  less  part  in  the  practice- 
effect  of  the  training,  in  greater  part  in  earlier  experience. 
Change  in  process  is  effected  through  the  selective  function  of 
attention,  by  way  of  adaptation,  and  of  acquiring  skill  through 
practice.  Adaptation  occasions  the  more  sudden  and  radical 
changes,  as  abrupt  change  in  method;  skill  through  practice 
involves  a  more  or  less  orderly  sequence  of  changes  depending 
in  nature  ujpon  the  task  but  always  resulting  in  a  marked 
difference  in  the  kind  of  work  performed  in  its  initial  and 
final  stages  {vid.,  p.  173). 

Practice-effect  in  the  tests  disturbs  the  quantitative  results; 
if  it  is  greater  in  the  first  than  in  the  final  test,  the  difference- 
score  is  too  large.  Any  average  which  includes  it  and  purports 
to  measure  efficiency  is  not  strictly  reliable.  The  extent  of  this 
source  of  error  in  'mental  tests'  may  be  indicated  by  the  fact 
that  of  125  difference-scores,  22%  were  affected  by  greater 
practice-effect  in  the  first  test,  and  10%  by  practice-effect  in 
both  first  and  final  tests  {vid.,  p.  177-178). 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  183 

Recognizing  the  inconclusive  character  of  our  quantitative 
results,  even  after  the  difference-scores  were  made  as  comparable 
as  possible,  we  found  31  cases  (7  of  which  were  influenced  by 
practice-effect  in  the  first  test)  of  probable  transference  of 
training-effect  to  the  tests,  some  of  which  were  greatly  different 
in  material  and  method  from  the  training.  In  all,  however, 
common  elements  in  part-processes,  and  in  modes  of  attention, 
were  numerous  (vid.,  p.  I78ff.). 

Introspective  data  are  decisive  in  indicating  the  transference 
of  methods  of  work  and  systems  of  imagery^^^  from  one  kind 
of  work  to  another,  where  applicable,  and  that  adaptation  to 
the  strange  work  of  a  test  consists  in  the  selection  and  applica- 
tion of  elements  of  former  experience  which,  when  acquired, 
must  always  have  been  'sipecific,'  and  which  as  applied  are 
always  'general.'  This  also  appears  to  be  a  principle  of  the 
learning-process,  in  which  skill  is  attained  by  smaller  and  more 
orderly  changes  in  the  processes  (7/id.,  p.  i8of.). 

Transference  need  not  be  consciously  effected.  Introspec- 
tions are  of  value  chiefly  not  because  of  asserting  or  denying 
it,  but  because  they  describe  the  processes  fully  and  accurately 
enough  for  its  presence  or  its  obsence  to  be  seen.  And  its  effect 
is  sometimes  negative  (md.,  p.  181). 

As  a  measure  of  attention  our  tests  are  inadequate,  and  the 
question  of  transference  of  improved  conditions  of  attention 
remains  open.  That  our  quantitative  results  were  not  more 
conclusive  in  showing  the  effects  of  training  on  attention  may 
be  owing,  in  addition  to  the  disturbing  influence  of  great  varia- 
tion in  processes  and  scores,  to  certain  limiting  conditions  under 
which  the  experimentation  was  conducted:  (a)  Change  in 
method  between  tests  rules  out  the  results  as  a  measure  of 
change  in  attention;  (b)  our  reagents  were  university  students 
whose  habits  of  attention  were  pretty  well  established  by  former 
training;  (c)  our  trained  reagents  were  more  mature  than  the 
control  reagents  and  were  experienced  in  laboratory  work;  (d) 
our  period  of  training  was  relatively  short  (six  weeks,  three 
days  per  week)  ;  (e)  our  tests  could  not  be  long  enough  to 
give  a  reliable  measure  of  initial  ability,  because  of  inter-test 

""In  agreement  with  Fracker  (op.  cit,  pp.  goflf.)- 


i84  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

practice-effect;  and  (f)  adequate  introspections  were  limited 
almost  wholly  to  the  trained  reagents. 

The  contribution  of  the  experiment  lies  principally  (i)  in 
revealing  the  nature  and  the  extent  of  variation  in  mental 
processes,  both  between  different  reagents  and  with  an  individual 
reagent,  which  may  be  expected  when  such  'tests'  as  ours 
are  given  under  favorable  laboratory  conditions  to  intelligent 
young  men  and  women;  (2)  in  showing  how  such  variation 
affects  the  scores;  and  (3)  in  offering  suggestions  toward 
improvement  in  this  type  of  experiment. 

The  interesting  question  of  how  statistical  method  is  affected 
by  these  considerations  is  discussed  later  (pp.  219  ff.). 


2.  Experiment  on  Reproduction 


The  purpose  of  this  experiment"  was  (a)  to  supplement  the 
Experiment  on  Attention  by  a  more  intimate  knowledge  of  the 
factors  of  variation,  through  greater  refinement  of  introspection 
and  analysis,  and  (b)  to  set  the  conditions  to  test  for  a  subtle 
but  definite  'spread  of  training.'^^^ 

To  meet  the  former  aim,  tests  were  chosen  or  devised  which 
offer  opportunity  for  introspection  separately  upon  the  successive 
'moments'  into  which  they  naturally  fall,  or  for  fuller  descrip- 
tion of  the  processes  used  in  acquisition  and  reproduction  by 
reason  of  the  material  used  in  them. 

To  meet  the  latter  aim,  the  tests  and  training  were  arranged 
to  exclude  the  transference  of  methods  of  work  or  of  systems 
of  imagery,  such  as  belong  rather  to  the  grosser  and  more 
radical  changes  in  work,  due  to  what  was  termed  "adaptation," 
than  to  those  smaller  and  more  orderly  changes  which  constitute 
practice-effect  proper. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  the  most  definite  cases  of  the 
general  effect  of  practice  which  came  to  notice  in  the  preceding 

'Performed  during  the  year  1911-1912. 

^  For  the  distinction  between  'Spread  of  Training'  and  'Transference,' 
see  footnote  to  p.  225,  and  the  text  on  p.  230. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  185 

experiment  were  of  the  nature  of  'transference,'  but  that  there 
was  also  some  indication  of  'spread  of  training';  and  that  it 
was  this  latter  sort  of  general  practice-effect  that  was  found 
in  the  earlier  experiments  on  Marking-out  Words,  Discrimina- 
tion, and  Reaction  with  Discrimination  and  Choice. 

The  susceptibility  to  improvement  of  the  capacity  to  'mature' 
and  reproduce  weak  imagery  in  the  tachistoscopic  training,  in 
the  Experiment  on  Attention,  suggested  reproduction  of  imagery 
as  the  work  of  this  experiment. ^"^  Consecj[uently,  tachistoscopic 
and  memory  tests  were  devised  and  made  to  differ  radically 
in  method  and  material  from  the  training,  in  order  to  avoid 
'transference'  and  to  invite  'spread  of  practice' ;  a  further 
test  which  differed  from  the  training  but  slightly  in  material, 
and  method,  was  included  to  determine  if  so  slight  a  difference 
might  cause  interference. 

The  training  chosen  was  sound  discrimination,  and  in  order 
to  insure  practice  in  reproduction  of  imagery  of  some  sort, 
the  time-intervals  between  the  two  sounds  to  be  discriminated 
were  varied  between  7  and  60  seconds,  and  series  of  sounds 
were  made  to  vary  widely,  as  a  whole,  in  intensity. 

The  tests  were  designed  to  measure  the  capacity  to  reproduce 
imagery  occasioned  by  the  presentation  of  materials  of  different 

"^This  process,  or  group  of  processes,  so  far  as  it  lies  above  the  threshold 
of  consciousness,  may  be  represented  by  a  tension  of  attention  under  the 
influence  of  'determining  tendencies'  analogous  to  the  experience  of  recalling 
a  name  that  seems  close  but  delays  in  coming ;  conceivably,  however,  it  also 
takes  place  wholly  under  the  threshold,  operates  in  part  from  "Unconscious 
psychical  stimuli"  (Lipps:  Grundtatsachen  des  Seelenlebens,  S.  125),  involves 
as  subtle  processes  as  the  "unconscious  associations"  reported  by  Scripture 
(Ueber  den  Associativen  Verlauf  der  Vorstellungen.  Phil.  Stud.,  1892,  7:78, 
136),  Jerusalem  (Beispiel  von  Assoziation  durch  unbewusste  Mittelglieder. 
Phil.  Stud.  1894.  10:323-5),  and  Thomas  (Ein  weitres  Beispiel.  Zeits.  f. 
Psychol.,  1896,  12:60).  Fid.  Footnote  on  p.  87.  Statistical  evidence  of  the 
influence  of  subliminal  impressions  upon  judgment  is  to  be  found  in  experi- 
ments in  discrimination  (where  Right  Cases  fall  off  regularly  with  the  magni- 
tude of  D)  (7nd.  Appendix  D,  p.  299,  and  Peirce  &  Jastrow,  quoted  by 
Donaldson  in  The  Growth  of  the  Brain,  p.  292),  and  has  been  reported  from 
experiments  on  Guessing  by  Sidis  (Psychology  of  Suggestion.  1898.  168-171) 
and  Stroh,  Shaw  and  Washburn  (A  study  in  Guessing.  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  1908, 
19:243-245)- 

It  is  perhaps  not  necessary  to  point  out  that  provision  for  introspection  in 
this  experiment  is  for  other  purposes  than  for  a  direct  determination  of  theT 
presence  of  these  subtle  processes  or  of  increase  in  their  efficiency. 


i86  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

kinds,  and  the  training  was  designed  to  develop  greater  power 
in  reproduction  of  imagery  of  a  certain  simple  kind. 

The  method  of  experimentation  was  the  same  as  the  preceding. 
Three  groups  of  reagents  took  the  series  of  tests  before  and 
after  an  interval  of  from  five  to  seven  weeks.  The  first  group 
took  training  during  the  seven  weeks;  the  second  group  took 
all  the  tests  before  and  after  a  free  interval  of  five  weeks;  the 
third  group  took  but  one  pair  of  tests  each  before  and  after 
a  free  interval  of  five  weeks.  Each  pair  of  tests  was  therefore 
taken  by  three  trained  reagents,  three  control  reagents  who 
took  the  other  tests  also,  and  two  control  reagents  who  took  no 
other  tests. 

The  trained  reagents  (Hs.,  Wn.,  Rt.)  were  seniors  in  Psy- 
chology, English  and  Education,  respectively,  who  were  doing 
advanced  laboratory  work  in  Psychology.  The  first  group  of 
control  reagents  (Al.,  Hhs.,  Br.)  were  a  freshman  and  a 
sophomore  in  Psychology,  both  pursuing  elementary  laboratory 
work,  and  a  freshman  in  Economics  who  had  no  laboratory 
experience.  The  second  control  group  (Ck.,  Pn.,  An.,  Ty.,  Dn., 
Hn.,  Hd.)  included  five  seniors,  one  sophomore,  and  one  fresh- 
man, representing  the  German,  History,  Education,  Economics, 
and  Pre-Legal  departments  of  the  university. 

a.  The  Tests 

Test  I.  Recognition  or  choice  of  one  of  two  letters.  The 
purpose  of  this  test  was  to  give  a  measure  of  the  liability^^^  of 
reproduction.  The  apparatus  was  the  same  as  that  used  in  the 
Tachistoscopic  test  (No.  17)  of  the  preceding  experiment.  The 
method  was  (a)  to  expose  a  12-consonant-rectangle  o.i  Sec, 
(b)  after  a  3-sec.  interval  to  expose  two  letters  printed  like  those 
printed  on  the  rectangle,  one  of  which  was  to  be  chosen  by  the 
reagent  as  having  been  on  the  card  and  to  be  recorded  in  the 
section  of  a  ruled  form  corresponding  as  nearly  as  possible  to 
its  position  in  the  rectangle,  (c)  to  time  with  a  stop-watch  the 
interval  between  the  exposure  of  the  two  letters  and  the  vocal 
choice  of  one  of  them.     Rectangles  were  presented  at  the  rate 

*^'  For  use  of  this  term,  vid.  Kiilpe :  Outlines,  p.  197. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  187 

of  one  a  minute.  Fifty  experiments  constituted  the  test.  All 
judgments  carried  an  index  of  one  of  four  grades  of  certainty 
as  to  the  letter's  existence  on  the  card  and  as  to  the  position 
in  which  it  was  recorded.  Introspections  were  made  upon  four 
different  intervals  or  moments  of  the  experiment:  (i)  From 
"Ready"  to  the  stimulus,  (2)  Perception,  (3)  On  the  interval 
of  3  seconds  between  perception  and  the  appearance  of  the  two 
letters,  (4)  The  moment  of  recognition  or  choice. 

The  two  letters  shown  for  choice  were  so  selected  that  they 
were  distributed  evenly  over  the  12  spaces  of  the  card,  that 
each  letter  was  on  the  card  one-half  times  as  often  as  it  was 
exposed  for  choice,  and  that  it  occupied  the  second  position  as 
often  as  it  did  the  first  in  the  presentation  for  choice;  thus  it 
would  be  possible  to  learn  if  any  part  of  the  card  is  favored 
in  perception,  if  there  were  favorite  letters,  if  the  right  or  left 
letter  presented  for  choice  is  favored,  all  of  which  would  be 
sources  of  error,  and  under  the  conditions  of  the  experiment 
would  tend  to  bring  the  score  of  R  cases  toward  the  probability 
figure  of  50%  ;  Reproductive  tendencies  would  be  shown  by  the 
excess  over  50%.     Fifty  experiments  constituted  the  test. 

Test  2.  Reproduction  and  recognition  of  letters  on  12-letter- 
rectanglcs.  The  apparatus  was  the  same  as  that  used  in  the  pre- 
ceding test.  The  method  was  only  slightly  changed  from  that 
of  Test  17  in  the  Experiment  on  Attention.  12-Consonant- 
rectangles  were  exposed  o.i  seconds;  10  seconds  were  given  in 
which  to  record  the  letters  perceived;  the  card  was  then  re- 
exposed  for  15  seconds  while  the  reagents  recorded  in  pencil 
other  letters  recognized  as  having  been  seen  but  which  failed 
to  be  recalled.  The  rate  of  experiments  was  two  minutes.  In- 
trospections upon  process  and  imagery  were  written  and  the 
following  intervals  of  the  experiment  were  treated  separately: 
(i)  From  "Ready"  to  stimulus,  (2)  Moment  of  perception; 
(3)  Upon  the  interval  before  recording,  if  there  was  one;  (4) 
Interval  of  recording;  (5)  Interval  of  recognizing  further  letters. 
Twenty  experiments  constituted  the  test.^^^ 

"*See  Appendix  C,  p.  295,  Method  "Text  (2),"  for  values  used  in  scoring 
the  results. 


i88  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

Test  3.  Discrimination  of  sounds.  The  same  as  No.  7  in 
the  Experiment  on  Attention;  the  same  series  of  intervals  were 
used  (vid.  Appendix  B.  Fig.  7,  p.  290)  and  the  stimuH  were 
given  with  the  same  instrument — the  sound  pendulum.  There 
were  10  series,  of  9  judgments  each,  in  the  test.  Intro- 
spections were  taken  on  the  process.  The  per  cent  of  R  cases 
was  to  constitute  a  measure  of  the  sort  of  reproduction  upon 
which  training  was  taken;  it  being  assumed  that  some  sort  of 
reproduction  of  the  first  stimulus,  or  of  some  function  of  it, 
was  necessary  to  render  judgment  upon  the  second. 

Test  4.  Memory  for  visual  symbols.  Reproductive  ten- 
dencies could  be  measured  here  by  the  amount  of  correct  repro- 
duction from  a  single  presentation,  and  by  the  number  of 
repetitions  necessary  to  learn  completely  a  series  of  12  symbols; 
both  measures  were  attempted.  The  Miiller  and  Schumann 
memory  apparatus  was  set  at  one  revolution  in  44.5  seconds, 
which  presented  the  symbols  at  the  rate  of  1.07  seconds.  And 
when  the  series  was  repeated,  presentations  came  at  the  rate 
of  44.5  seconds,  leaving  an  interval  of  about  33  seconds  between 
the  end  of  one  and  the  beginning  of  another.  The  number 
of  revolutions  was  recorded  by  the  apparatus.  The  symbols 
were  of  the  same  kind  as  those  used  by  Ebert- and  Meumann,^-^ 
one  series  of  symbols  resembling  notes  of  music  with  the  flags 
variously  located;  the  other,  of  symbols  resembling  sickles,  both 
elements  changing  in  absolute  positions  and  in  relation  to  each 
other. 

The  first  part  of  the  experiment  consisted  in  reproduction 
of  as  many  symbols  as  could  be  remembered  from  one  presenta- 
tion each  of  two  series  of  six  symbols;  the  second  part,  of 
learning  two  series  of   12   symbols  by  heart. 

b.  The  Training 

Three  4th  year  students  (Hs.,  Wn.,  Rt.)  took  the  training 
in  Sensible  Discrimination  of  intensities  of  sound,  which  ex- 
tended over  a  period  of  48  days  and  consisted  of  31,  59,  60 

^  Archiv  f .d.  ges.  Psychologic.  1905.  4 :  49 ;  samples  of  these  forms  are 
also  illustrated  by  Thorndike :    Educational  Psychology,  vol.  II,  p.  369. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  189 

series,  9  judgments  per  series,  taken  upon  7,  u,  13  days, 
aggregating  279,  450,  540  judgments  respectively  for  Hs.,  Wn.. 
and  Rt.  The  training  was  taken  between  2 :  30  and  3 :  30  p.m., 
and  continued  about  45  to  55  minutes.  The  room  during  the 
experiment  was  kept  closed  and  much  darkened,  and  the 
reagents  kept  their  positions  constant,  about  4  meters  from  the 
source  of  the  sound,  with  their  backs  toward  it.  They  took 
the  training  together  and  secured  privacy  at  a  long  table  by 
partitions  of  wooden  screens. 

The  sounds  were  produced  by  dropping  steel  balls  from 
magnets  upon  a  steel  block,  by  the  use  of  Krueger's  "Fall- 
phonometer."^^'^  Manipulation  was  noiseless.  The  weights  of 
the  pairs  of  balls  were: 

1.  5.56  grams 

2.  8.33       " 

3.  11.86      " 

and  the  heights  from  which  they  fell,  and  their  relative 
intensities  of  sound  were : 


ervals 

cm. 

Intens 

9 

96 

1.78 

8 

84 

1-55 

7 

72 

1-33 

6 

63 

1. 17 

5 

54 

I. 

4 

47 

0.87 

3 

40 

0.74 

2 

35 

0.63 

I 

30 

0.56 

These  steps  in  intensity  are  about  one-half  a  noticeable  difference. 
The  54  cm.  fall  was  used  for  the  norm,  and  it  with  all  the 
rest  for  variables;  but  by  using  the  three  pairs  of  balls,  three 
norms  of  varying  intensities  (i.oo,  1.50,  3.13),  with  their  corre- 
sponding series  of  variables,  were  obtained.  Judgment  was  given 
upon  the  second  sound,  and  the  latter  was  the  norm  as  often 
as  it  was  the  variable.  The  time  intervals  between  the  two 
stimuli   were   equally  distributed   over   7,    15,    30,    60   seconds. 

^  Similar,   in   principle,   to   illustration   in   Wundt :    Grundziige   d.   Physiol. 
Psych.     (5te  Auf.)  1 :  512. 


I90  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

These  changes  in  intensity  of  the  norms  and  in  sequence  of 
variable  and  norm  were  intended  to  prevent  an  easy  classification 
of  the  first  stimulus  and  to  favor  its  being  held  in  some  sort 
of  imagery;  and  the  temporal  intervals  were  made  various 
lengths  to  make  the  retention  or  recall  of  that  imagery  necessary, 
and  to  facilitate  a  checking  up  of  this  fact  by  comparison  of 
the  number  of  the  Right  and  Undecided  cases  for  the  various 
intervals.  The  method  was  that  of  constant  difference,  Right 
and  Wrong  Cases;  procedure  without  knowledge. 

c.  Training  Results 

(i)  Processes 
Hs. 

At  the  beginning  and  throughout  the  training  Hs.  held  the 
auditory  image  of  the  first  stimulus,  or  brought  it  back  with 
more  or  less  effort,  and  compared  it  with  the  auditory  sensa- 
tion of  the  second  stimulus  (i,  32).  But  there  were  variations 
from  this  general  method  •}'^'^ 

^  In  the  deviations  from  the  simple  direct  comparison  of  auditory  imagery 
which  resulted  in  the  training-series  of  these  reagents,  it  is  possible  that 
reproductive  processes  of  some  sort  found  place.  Whether  the  simple  audi- 
tory impressions  were  supplemented  or  actually  replaced  by  complicated 
auditory  imagery  or  imagery  from  the  other  modalities  (visual,  tactual, 
kinaesthetic),  or  comparison  was  dispensed  with  in  'free'  judgments,  it  would 
seem  that  imagery  representing  the  first  stimulus,  or  an  organic  reaction 
to  it,  mediated  judgment.  That  these  deviations  are  frequent,  results  largely 
from  the  fact,  pointed  out  by  Whipple  (An  analytical  study  of  the  memory 
image  and  the  process  of  judgment  in  the  discrimination  of  clangs  and  tones. 
Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  1902,  13:259),  Slaughter  (A  preliminary  study  of  mental 
images.  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  1902,  13:  526ff),  Kuhlmann  (Problems  in  the  analysis 
of  the  memory  consciousness.  Jr.  Philos.  Psych.  &  Sci.  Meth.,  1907,  4:5ff), 
and  others,  that  the  auditory  image  is  not  simple  and  that  it  sometimes  loses 
itself  in  its  other-modal  or  organic  constituents ;  and  partly  from  the  impulse, 
insisted  upon  by  Woodworth  (Non-sensory  components  of  sense  perception. 
Jr.  Phil.  Psych.  &  Sci.  Meth.,  1907,  4:  i69fiF),  to  clothe  the  sensory  impression 
with  ideational,  perceptive,  or  emotional  attributes.  Bentley  (The  memory 
image  and  its  qualitative  fidelity.  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  1899,  11:7),  quoting 
Kiilpe,  reminds  us  that  reproductions  are  not  weakened  copies  of  sensations, 
that  reproduced  sensation  is  schematic,  needs  aids  (words,  movements,  or- 
ganic sensations,  feelings)  to  complete  recollection,  and  adds  that  these  aids 
may  become  the  real  vehicle  of  retention. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  191 

Sometimes  the  image  of  the  first  stimulus  is  overcome  by 
other  imagery  or  by  distraction :  In  one  instance  visual  imagery 
of  E  manipulating  imaginary  apparatus  crowded  it  out,  after 
which  it  was  recalled  (i).  When  she  was  nervous  or  tired 
the  auditory  image  was  apt  to  get  away,  especially  during  the 
longer  intervals  (18,25);  then  she  was  particularly  conscious 
of  distraction — wind  whistling  by  the  windows  (26),  the  stop- 
watch ticking  (31),  a  throbbing  noise  down  stairs  (55)  which 
rendered  the  renewal  of  the  image  very  difficult  or  even  im- 
possible. "Lost  image  entirely  .  .  .  was  going  to  judge  '  ?'  when 
it  returned  and  I  was  quite  sure  that  my  judgment  'greater' 
was  correct"  (22  15  ,  Norm-Variable  9,  60/'  Right). 

Instead  of  comparing  the  image  of  the  first  stimulus  with 
the  sensation  of  the  second  she  sometimes  had  the  feeling  of 
converting  her  image  of  the  first  into  sensation  and  of  com- 
paring sensations  (i),  or  in  uncertainty  she  compared  images 
of  both  (26:8);  occasionally  she  interpreted  intensities  as 
qualities  of  pitch  and  translated  tonal  imagery  into  intensity 
(14,  46);  she  also  based  judgments  on  extraneous  imagery  as 
"the  feeling  in  the  hands  of  noise  from  wooden  blocks"  (29), 
and  other  kinaesthetic  images  in  hands  and  arms  (32  13,  V3N — 
15'')-  In  some  series  she  did  not  try  to  hold  the  image  of  the 
first,  but  often  brought  it  back  after  the  second  stimulus  was 
received  (36,  41).  In  some  cases  she  made  'free'  judgments: 
"I  lost  the  image  entirely,  yet  when  the  second  stimulus  came 
it  was  very  clearly  'greater'  ...  it  was  startlingly  loud" 
(39:2,— NV8 — 60''— R)  ;  "I  could  not  bring  back  image  of  the 
first  stimulus,  but  I  was  certain  that  the  second  stimulus  was 
'greater' ;  I  think  I  judged  more  by  the  way  it  startled  me  than 
by  anything  else"  (42:1, — NV7' — 60" — R). 

The  judgment  'like'  sometimes  meant  that  (i)  the  "sensa- 
tion exactly  fits  in  with  the  retained  or  renewed  auditory  image" 
(i),  and  is  given  with  a  feeling  of  certainty  (21)  ;  and  (2)  the 
identity  is  doubtful  (26), 

Introspective  notes  as  to  certainty  in  a  series  correlate  with 
the  number  of  R  judgments  (28,  29). 

Relief  was  felt  when  the  intervals  were  short;  the  eflfort  to 


192  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

renew  and  strengthen  the  image  of  the  first  stimulus  is  spared 
(27:9). 

Her  training  was  taken  under  trying  circumstances,  occasioned 
by  events  not  connected  with  her  university  work,  which  made 
her  very  nervous  and  given  to  abstraction.  She  omitted  series 
3-17  and  47-49  inclusive. 

Wn. 

Particularly  at  first  and  somewhat  all  through  the  training 
Wn.  retained  or  revived  images  of  the  first  stimulus  in  order 
to  pass  judgment  upon  the  second;  comparison  however  was 
difficult:  "I  seem  to  compare  the  first  stimulus  I  have  retained 
through  images,  with  the  second  stimulus  as  soon  as  I  hear  the 
latter.  When  I  have  tried  to  compare  them  both  as  images  I 
have  found  great  trouble  in  keeping  each  clear  in  my  mind; 
they  have  tended  to  overlap  each  other"  (3).  This  difficulty 
in  comparing  images  is  mentioned  several  times  (6,  8).  Never- 
theless to  pass  judgment  upon  the  sensation  of  the  second 
stimulus,  the  image  of  the  first  seems  necessary:  "I  find  that 
if  the  first  is  not  in  my  mind  as  one  image  or  another  when 
the  second  is  sounded,  I  have  great  difficulty  in  comparing  the 
two.  It  requires  constant  attention  to  keep  it  there,"  (6).  The 
holding  or  reviving  images  is  mentioned  in  series  i,  2,  3,  14, 
17,  20,  21,  22,  28,  38,  41,  48.  It  was  resorted  to  in  the  heavily 
typed  series  (17,  38)  upon  inability  to  classify  the  first  stimuli 
or  to  attribute  to  them  a  personal  quality. 

The  images  are  strong  just  after  the  first  stimulus  has  sounded, 
but  soon  fade  (2),  are  very  hard  to  retain  (6)  or  to  revive  after 
they  have  disappeared.  Often  they  are  recalled  by  the  second 
stimulus  (7,  12,  26). 

The  imagery  seems  rarely  purely  auditory.  It  is  usually 
auditory  and  kinaesthetic,  the  latter  taking  the  dominant  role, 
especially  in  reviving  a  waning  or  lost  impression  (2,3).  In 
this"  the  throat,  head,  and  hands,  are  chiefly  instrumental  (i,  4, 
7,  II,  13,  14,  20,  28,  41).  Sometimes  the  kinaesthetic  image 
is  based  on  a  "singing"  of  the  first  stimulus,  intensity  being 
interpreted  as  pitch  (15,  28,  41,  49);  rarely  is  the  pitch  held 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  193 

In  auditory  imagery  of  another's  voice  (43,48).  Occasionally 
the  sounds  are  interpreted  as  'stronger'  instead  of  'greater' 
(4)  ;  and  value  is  given  in  terms  of  "sensations  of  being  struck" 
(i).  Judgments  were  sometimes  based  upon  the  "startling 
effect"  (3,4a),  or  a  "sensation  of  surprise,"  (5).  Visual 
imagery  played  some  part  but  was  usually  recognized  as  a  dis- 
traction (4,  13)  ;  sometimes,  however,  as  an  aid  (13,  14,  20,  27). 
It  took  various  forms:  "a  piece  of  steel  being  snapped"  (i,  13, 
20)  ;  "E  working  with  the  apparatus"  (4,  11,  14,  27)  ;  "a  piece 
of  steel  hitting  a  bar  of  iron"  (4)  ;  and  such  as  attended  associa- 
tions involved  in  attributing  personal  qualities  to  the  stimuli  (43). 
Other  modes  of  passing  judgment  developed  early  and  con- 
tinued throughout  the  training.  The  beginning  of  the  method 
cf  classification  resulted  from  a  noted  "familiar"  quality  of  the 
first  stimulus  as  a  sound  that  was  heard  before  and  is  now 
known  (8,  9,  36),  and  a  comparison  of  the  first  stimulus  with 
preceding  first  stimuli  (10,  11).  This  led  to  classification  as 
"very  loud,"  or  "very  soft"  (10,  11,  14,  18),  which  developed 
into  a  method  (20,  30,  31,  41,  49)  :  "I  have  developed  quite  a 
system  of  classification  of  the  first  stimulus  as  'very  large,' 
'large,'  'small,'  'very  small,'  etc.,  so  that  I  have  no  difficulty 
in  recalling  it  upon  hearing  the  second.  I  do  not  even  have  to 
think  of  it  in  the  interval  when  the  first  stimulus  is  very  decided 
one  way  or  the  other"  (30).  The  first  stimulus  was  then  re- 
tained in  verbal-motor  imagery.  Sometimes  this  method  failed, 
however,  and  she  had  to  fall  back  upon  auditory-kinaesthetic 
imagery  (33).  Upon  the  break-down  of  this  method,  another 
was  developed,  suggested  probably  by  an  early  instance  (13:6) 
in  which  a  loud  stimulus  brought  to  mind  a  very  aggressive 
man  of  her  acquaintance.  Qualities  of  personality  were  con- 
ferred upon  the  first  stimulus  (13,  35,  36,  37)  :  "From  classify- 
ing the  stimulus  in  a  general  way  as  'very  great,'  'great,'  etc.,  I 
have  come  to  attributing  qualities;  as,  aggressiveness,  timidity, 
power,  weakness,  etc.  I  find  that  by  doing  this  I  can  remember 
the  stimulus  easily  when  I  want  to  compare  it  with  the  second 
stimulus  and  need  not  think  of  it  during  the  interval,  as  is  the 
case  when  I  try  to  retain  it  by  image"  (35).     Sometimes,  how- 


194  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

ever,  the  stimulus  failed  to  suggest  personal  qualities  (38)  ;  "In 
such  cases  I  fell  back  on  the  images,  auditory-kinaesthetic,  for  a 
comparison,  and  was  usually  able  to  recall  them"  (38). ^^^ 

The  obvious  economy  of  these  two  methods  in  the  longer 
intervals  of  30''  and  60"  is  probably  responsible  for  their  use. 

'Free'  judgments  were  seldom  made  (26.3). 

'Like'  judgments  were  usually  based  upon  "similar  effects — 
same  kind  of  sensations"  (i),  or  "the  same  sensation  of 
surprise"  (4). 

The  short  intervals  (7'',  15'')  were  a  relief  (10),  the  long 
ones  difficult  (18,  23,  47),  especially  because  the  retained  imagery 
may  not  belong  to  the  last  experiment. 

The  heavier  balls  were  also  a  relief  (16,  22,  46)  ;  the  weaker 
sounds  were  hard  to  retain  and  hard  to  classify  (33). 

When  the  norm  was  the  first  stimulus  it  was  often  thought 
to  be  varying  (17). 

Emotional  factors  probably  played  some  part  in  determining 
judgment:  Sometimes  the  second  stimulus  was  anticipated  (5); 
reagent  was  worried  because  there  were  so  many  'less'  (20,  43) 
or  'greater'  (24)  judgments  occurring  in  the  series;  or  upon 
giving  several  'like'  judgments  she  tried  to  make  the  rest  either 
'greater'  or  'less'  (32).  Conferring  personality  was  an  "interest- 
ing" process  (36)  and  may  have  urged  attributes  not  appropriate. 

The  'type'  as  shown  by  an  assembling  of  the  data  is  verified 
by  introspection :  "I  am  surer  of  'less'  than  of  'greater'  judg- 
ments" (5).  The  R  judgments  for  the  cases  in  which  the  second 
stimulus  was  'less'  greatly  exceed  those  of  the  cases  in  which 
it  was  'greater.' 

Rt 

Rt.  insists  that  no  image  of  the  first  stimulus  remains  during 
the  interval  (i,  2,  4)  :  "In  fact  if  I  try  to  keep  it  in  mind  I 
am  not  sure  that  I  succeed  as  well  as  when  I  don't  try  to  do  so" 
( I )  ;  but  "an  idea  of  the  intensity  of  the  first  stimulus  remains — 
though  not  in  auditory  imagery"  (1:7).  "I  do  not  carry  the 
image  over  the  interval;  I  do  carry  a  sort  of  estimate  of  the 

"*That  methods  and  standards  of  judgment  alter  in  training  was  shown 
by  Whipple's  reagent  O.  (Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  12:448). 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  I95 

comparative  loudness  of  the  first  sound:  I  cannot  say  just  how 
I  form  the  estimate"  (5).  At  the  beginning  of  the  training, 
therefore,  he  began  to  classify  the  first  stimulus  which  relieved 
him  of  carrying  an  auditory  image.  But  there  were  times  when 
the  image  of  the  first  stimulus  was  distinctly  recalled  just  after 
the  second  was  received:  "On  the  appearance  of  the  second 
sound  there  must  be  a  recall  of  the  'idea'  of  the  loudness  of 
the  first  sound,  and  I  think  the  actual  sound  arouses  an  auditory 
image  of  the  first"   (36). 

As  the  training  progressed,  judgments  were  confidently  given 
when  no  image  or  idea  of  classification  was  present  (28),  and 
it  became  difficult  to  introspect  (31 ).  The  following  is  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  process  written  after  the  last  series: 

"I  have  a  'mental  estimate'  rather  than  an  auditory  image  of 
the  sound.  There  must  be  a  vague  fleeting  imagery  with  this 
'mental  estimate'  for  if  the  interval  is  long  this  estimate  is  less 
definitely  placed,  is  more  elusive  and  fleeting  and  vague.  A  sort 
of  'stock  pattern'  of  degree  of  loudness  remains.  This  concerns 
only  the  interval.  On  the  appearance  of  the  second  sound  I 
am  more  able  to  judge  than  I  expect  to  be"  (49). 

There  are  many  protests  against  the  long  intervals  (i,  2,  3, 
10)  the  reagent  claiming  that  he  loses  attention;  this  would 
seem  to  indicate  an  effort  to  carry  imagery  along. 

Judgment  was  usually  given  quickly  or  upon  the  appearance 
of  the  second  stimulus  (2,  3).  The  most  satisfactory  state  of 
the  attention  was  not  the  highest  (2),  and  the  reagent  com- 
plained that  it  was  often  poor  (4,  6)  and  often  that  the  sounds 
seemed  vague  (13,  14).  Distraction  was  often  noticed  (5,  18, 
26,  27,  35,  41). 

The  judgment  'like'  merely  meant  no  perceptible  difference 
(1:8,4:6). 

The  reagent's  'type'  is  verified  by  his  introspection  upon  the 
last  day :  "The  long  interval  I  feel  makes  the  second  sound 
seem  louder.  The  first  is  fading  in  intensity  and  clearness  and 
is  becoming  flitting  in  its  recall.  .  .  .  There  is  either  an  unusual 
number  of  judgments  'greater'  or  else  I  have  a  decided  prefer- 
ence for  them  in  series  48  and  49." 


196  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

(2)   Quantitative 

In  reckoning  Right  and  Undecided  cases  (a)  judgments  upon 
D=o  are  discarded, ^-'^  (b)  'Doubtful'  and  'like'  judgments 
are  aggregated  as  Undecided;  (c)  per  cent  is  reckoned  upon 
the  total  number  of  judgments  upon  D>o. 

With  the  intermediate  weight  of  ball  a  series  of  judgments 
yield  a  slightly  greater  per  cent  of  R  cases  when  the  fall-phono- 
meter is  used  (as  in  the  training)  than  when  our  test  series  is 
given  on  the  sound-pendulum  (as  in  Test  3).  The  following 
table  gives  the  results  of  Rt. :  (80  judgments  each). 

Sound  Pendulum  Fall-Phonometer 

R  U  R  U 

62.5%  27.5%  65.0%  22.5% 

All  other  conditions  remaining  the  same,  a  greater  per  cent 
of  R  cases  occurred  (a)  when  the  absolute  intensities  were 
greater  (heavier  balls  being  used),  (b)  when  the  time-interval 
between  the  stimuli  was  15",  (c)  when  the  second  stimulus  is 
the  less,  for  Hs.  and  Wn. ;  when  it  is  the  greater,  for  Rt. 

From  the  following  table,  showing  the  number  of  R  cases 
in  96  judgments  on  each  time-interval,  in  seconds,  it  appears 
that  "imagery"  of  some  sort  was  more  or  less  used: 
7"  15"  30"  60" 


Hs. 

46 

57 

48 

43 

Wn. 

51 

61 

54 

59 

Rt. 

63 

68 

61 

54 

The  y"  interval  was  not  sufficient  for  the  imagery  to  become 
settled.  The  imagery  seemed  to  dim  with  the  flight  of  time; 
only  for  Wn.,  who  used  classification  more  consistently — an  in- 
direct method, — was  the  longest  interval  as  favorable  as  others. ^^^ 

'^  Vid.  p.  43,   footnote. 

^^°  The  indication  of  the  dependence  of  judgment  upon  memorial  factors 
becomes  more  definite  if  we  separate  the  judgments  according  to  the  rela- 
tion of  the  intensity  of  the  second  stimulus  to  that  of  the  first.  Assuming, 
from  the  work  of  Ebbinghaus  and  others,  some  of  whom  are  noticed  below, 
that  the  memorial  factor  dims  with  time,  one  should  expect  (i)  Overestima- 
tion  of  the  second  stimulus,  (2)  A  falling  off  of  Right  Cases  with  time,  in 
the  gross  averages  (as  is  shown  in  the  table  above),  and   (3)   upon  segrega- 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  197 

If  the  R  judgments  of  the  training  are  aggregated  for  each 
of  the  reagents  respectively,  their  relative  efficiencies  may  be 
compared:   Hs.  50.4%,  Wn.  58.6%,  Rt.  64.1%. 

A  peculiarity  of  the  training  is  that  instead  of  improvement 


ting  the  data  as  suggested,  a  general  restriction  of  this  decrease  in  R  cases 
to  the  group  in  which  the  second  stimulus  is  less  than  the  first.  This  third 
expectation  is  fulfilled  in  the  following  table  (Per  cent  of  judgments  reck- 
oned upon  all  judgments  upon  D>o)  : 

7"  15"  30"  60" 

S,<S, 


Hs. 

23 

55 

36 

S3 

Wn. 

S3 

58 

54 

69 

Rt. 

63 

71 

77 

71 

Avg.  % 

40 

61 

56 

64 

S.>S3 

Hs. 

69 

56 

57 

34 

Wn. 

71 

67 

^i 

54 

Rt. 

69 

71 

50 

40 

Ave.  %        70  65  57  43 

The  first  expectation  enumerated  above,  is  met  by  all  reagents  when  the 
stimuli  were  given  60"  apart,  and  by  Rt.  in  gross  averages.  It  is  opposed 
by  'Type'  in  the  shorter  intervals  for  Hs.  and  Wn.  Another  influence  to 
veil  in  slight  measure  the  fulfillment  of  these  expectations  is  the  presence 
of  'absolute'  or  'free'  judgments,  shown  by  all  reagents  in  excess  of  R 
cases  in  Order  N — V  over  Order  V — N ;  it  amounts  to  about  7%  of  all  R 
cases  on  D>o. 

Our  results  conform  pretty  well  with  the  literature.  The  over-estimation 
of  the  second  stimulus  (the  Fechnerian  Time-Error — vid.  Psychophysik  1 :88) 
has  been  found  with  musical  tone  by  Wolfe  (Phil.  Stud.  3:556),  with  inten- 
sities of  sound  by  Starke  (Phil.  Stud.,  3  :27ofif),' Merkel  (Phil.  Stud.,  4:117(1), 
Lehmann  (Phil.  Stud.,  7:205),  and  Tschisch  (Zeits.  d.  Psychiatric,  1896), 
with  memory  for  passive  movement  by  Schukowsky  (Zeits.  d.  Psychiatric, 
1899),  with  discrimination  of  shadows  by  Gerwert  (Zeits.  d.  Psychiatric,  1899; 
No.  8),  and  with  discrimination  of  shades  of  gray  by  F.  Angell  (Phil.  Stud., 

19:5). 

A  falling  off  of  R  cases  with  increase  in  time  between  the  stimuli  is  shown 
by  Wolfe  {op.  cit.  p.  569),  Tschisch  (Dritter  Int.  Kong.  f.  Psychol.,  1896, 
p.  103),  Gerwert  (op.  cit.),  and  F.  Angell  (op.  cit.  From  Table  III,  pp.  12-13). 

The  general  restriction  of  this  falling  off  of  the  R  cases  with  time  to  the 
group  Si>S,.  cannot  be  well  illustrated  from  the  literature  for  the  reason  that 
this  group  cannot  be  segregated  from  the  other  (Si<S2)   in  the  tables;  it  is 


ipS  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

retrogression  was  shown  in  R  judgments,  although  Undecided 
judgments  decreased.  The  following  table  gives  the  per  cent 
of  R  and  U  cases  for  each  third  of  the  training: 

R  U 


' 

^ 

' 

\ 

1st 

2d 

3d 

1st 

2d 

3d 

Hs. 

Si.i 

48.8 

33.8 

30.0 

Wn. 

60.0 

58.8 

57-5 

18.8 

26.3 

18.8 

Rt. 

63.8 

68.8 

60.0 

25.0 

16.3 

13.8 

The  only  improvement  indicated  is  in  Rt.'s  intermediate  part  of 
the  training.  This  may  mean  that  no  increase  in  reproductivity 
took  place  as  a  result  of  the  training,  in  which  case,  if  we  may 
judge  from  the  results  of  the  single  reagent  in  the  Experiment 
on  Sensible  Discrimination  (p.  45)  who  failed  to  improve 
with  practice,  no  improvement  is  to  be  expected  in  the  tests. 
It  will  be  seen  in  the  test  results  that  in  Test  3,  on  this  same 
process,  Rt.  is  the  only  trained  reagent  who  shows  a  gain  and 
that  is  insignificant  in  amount. 

But  on  the  analogy  of  Al.'s  training  in  the  Experiment  on 


shown,  however,  in  the  data  of  Table  III  in  F.  Angell's  research  on  the 
Discrimination  of  Shades  of  Gray  {op.  cit.  pp.  12-13)  which  we  segregate 
and  present  in  per  cent  of  R  cases  as  follows : 


S,<S, 


S" 

15" 

30" 

60" 

Avg.  % 

Al. 

61.9 

60.4 

67.3 

72.2 

65.4 

Bt. 

53-5 

48.2 

55-7 

65.6 

55.7 

57-7 

54-3 

61.5 

68.9 

AI. 

63.0 

53-7 

46.4 

47-5 

52.7 

Bt. 

67.7 

70.7 

65.2 

55-0 

65.3 

s>s. 


65.4  62.2  55.3  51.3 

When  intervals  of  from  5  seconds  to  60  seconds  have  been  used  between 
the  stimuli,  optimal  intervals  greater  than  5  seconds  and  less  than  30  seconds 
have  been  shown  by  Gerwert  (op.  cit.),  Tschisch  (Dritter  Int.  Kong.  f. 
Psychol.,  p.  103),  Wolfe  (op.  cit.),  and  Angell  (op.  cit.  p.  5). 

Influence  of  'Type'  was  shown  by  Martin  and  Miiller  (Zur  analyse  der 
Unterschiedsempfindlichkeit,  pp.  128-134),  Kampfe  (Phil.  Stud.,  8:582),  and 
F.  Angell  on  Discrimination  of  Clangs    (Am.  Jr.  Psychol.,  12:72). 

A  good  critique  of  the  variable  influences  upon  R  cases  in  this  type  of 
experimentation  is  to  be  found  in  Martin  and  Miiller  (op.  cit.,  pp.  I7ff) 
and  in  Angell's  review  of  the  same  in  the  Am.  Jr.  Psychol.   (ii:266fif). 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  199 

Attention,  there  may  have  been  some  change  made  by  the  train- 
ing which  the  scores  failed  to  show.  Analysis  rather  than  scores 
must  be  relied  upon  to  determine  this,  and  it  was  seen  in  the 
analysis  of  processes  that  change  did  take  place. 

d.  Test  Results 

( I )   Recognition  or  Choice  of  One  of  Two  Letters 
The  method  of  this  test  favors  analysis  of  both  introspective 
and  quantitative  results  for  determining  many  of  the  factors  of 
variability  in  the  processes  involved  in  a  task  which  seems  quite 
simple  and  definite. 

(a)  Introspective  Analysis 

If  one  experiment  be  divided  into  four  intervals  upon  which 
introspections  were  recorded,  the  method  of  the  reagent  and 
the  accompanying  processes  may  be  stated  as  follows : 

1.  Interval  between  signal  and  stimuhis  (2  sec).  A  settling 
of  the  body  into  a  comfortable  (Al.)  or  a  strained  (Hhs.)  atti- 
tude, a  direction  of  the  gaze  upon  the  window  of  the  screen, 
sometimes  with  the  head  at  a  slight  angle  (Wn.)  ;  Consciousness 
may  (i)  contain  keenly  the  purpose  of  (a)  seeing  the  whole 
card,  or  (b)  a  definite  portion  of  it,  or  (2)  the  mind  may  be 
a  blank  (Hhs.).  If  perception  of  the  whole  card  is  intended, 
the  center  of  the  window  may  be  keenly  fixated  or  the  gaze 
may  be  not  so  limited  spatially.  The  trained  reagents  appear  to 
have  been  more  constant  in  holding  a  single  purpose,  though  all 
reagents  varied  some  in  this  respect  during  the  50  experiments 
of  the  test;  the  control  reagents  did  more  experimenting 
especially  in  regard  to  the  extent  and  location  of  perception. 

2.  Moment  of  perception  {o.f).  A  more  or  less  dim  image 
of  the  whole  card  may  result,  but  usually  one  line  or  a  group 
of  letters  stand  out  more  clearly,  while  the  rest  of  the  card 
may  present  some  dim  imagery  or  may  appear  blank.  Some- 
times the  presentation  was  read  (verbally)  from  left  to  right 
or  from  top  to  bottom;  sometimes  just  seized  as  a  whole,  vis- 
ually. The  grades  of  clearness  of  the  letters  did  not  follow  from 
the  purpose,  except  in  cases  where  perception  was  narrowed  to  a 


200  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

small  part  of  the  card.     From  2  to  5   letters  were  the  usual 
number  that  occurred  in  clear  imagery. 

3,  Interval  between  the  perception  and  the  presentation  of  the 
two  letters  {3").  Visual  imagery  was  held  and  often  read  as 
far  as  clear  letters  appeared;  effort  to  'mature'  dim  imagery, 
and  to  locate  the  letters  seen.  Sometimes  a  vivid  hope  is  enter- 
tained that  certain  of  the  clear  letters  will  be  exhibited.  There 
was  noted  a  feeling-  that  more  letters  than  those  perceived  would 
be  recognized  if  shown  (Rt.). 

4.  Moment  of  recognition  or  choice.  If  one  of  the  two  letters 
shown  had  been  clearly  perceived,  it  was  instantly  named;  if 
neither  had  been  clearly  seen,  effort  was  made  to  determine  which 
had  been  on  the  card  and  one  was  chosen  because  it  "seemed 
more  familiar"  either  to  sight  or  by  pronunciation,  because  it 
brought  back  a  vague  image  of  the  card,  because  its  form  was 
more  pleasing,  because  of  certainty  that  the  other  letter  was  not 
seen;  or  the  choice  was  a  "pure  guess."  Since  the  imagery  was 
in  all  grades  of  clearness,  certainty  of  judgment  graded  down 
from  very  certain  to  wholly  uncertain.  Four  grades  were  re- 
corded. "Very  certain"  was  given  for  very  clear  visual  or 
kinaesthetic  or  combined  imagery;  "Certain"  for  less  clearness; 
"Not  just  certain"  either  for  such  imagery  as  would  support 
the  choice  of  a  similar  letter,  or  for  vague  imagery;  "Wholly 
uncertain"  for  very  vague  imagery  or  for  none.  Sometimes  a 
letter  was  recognized  as  having  been  seen,  while  in  process  of 
pronunciation  (Hs.).  Other  cases  of  'maturing'  imagery 
adequate  for  recognition,  concurring  with  the  feeling  of  famil- 
iarity, and  efficiency  in  recalling  a  vague  image  of  the  card, 
referred  to  above,  are  indicated  by  changes  in  choice.  That 
vague  imagery  often  determined  undecided  judgments  is  shown 
by  the  record  of  the  influnce  of  the  ist,  2d,  and  3d  preceding 
cards. 

(b)   Quantitative  Analysis 

Analysis  of  the  quantitative  results  reveals  some  additional 
factors  of  variation  in  processes,  indicating  further  complexity 
of  the  processes  engaged  in  this  simple  task,  and  shows  in  what 
way  training  of  the  regular  reagents  affected  these  processes. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  201 

The  range  of  initial  capacity  was  from  48%  to  76%  R  cases, 
and  its  average  of  61%  was  increased  in  the  final  test  by  2%. 
But  increase  was  not  uniform,  nor  do  the  regular  reagents  show 
any  advantage  over  the  control  reagents,  and  it  will  be  made 
evident  that  these  scores  cannot  be  taken  as  a  measure  of  re- 
production or,  in  fact,  of  any  other  capacity.  The  first  patent 
indication  that  they  measure  greatly  different  processes  is  the 
fact  that  the  results  of  two  control  reagents  are  directly  opposed 
to  each  other :  Al.  made  the  highest  score  in  the  first  test,  and  the 
lowest  in  the  final,  losing  18%  ;  Ck.  made  the  lowest  score  in  the 
first  test  and  made  the  greatest  gain  {12%). 

Letters  were  chosen  by  all  reagents  with  four  degrees  of 
certainty  each  of  which  involved  different  processes,  as  is  shown 
not  only  by  the  introspections  but  by  the  regularity  of  their 
quantitative  results  when  the  latter  are  aggregated : 


VC 

C 

NC 

U 

%  R  cases 

94 

73.6 

56.3 

49.4 

Avg.  time  of  choice 

1.22" 

1.47" 

1.68" 

2.16" 

Avg.  space  error 

079 

1. 15 

1.32 

1.41 

The  distribution  of  all  judgments  is  shown  by  the  following 
per  cents : 

14.6  18.4         21.6         45.4 

Thus  almost  half  of  the  aggregate  of  judgments  was  "Wholly 
Uncertain." 

The  distribution  of  judgments  over  the  various  grades  of 
certainty  varied  some  between  the  first  and  final  tests  for  all 
reagents.  This  was  caused  by  variability  in  the  direction  and 
extent  of  the  attention,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  carrying  out 
the  instructions  to  attend  to  the  whole  card;  only  one  reagent 
(Rt.)  was  able  to  do  this  consistently  and  he  complained  that 
the  unnatural  effort  was  a  distraction.  It  has  not  been  stated, 
perhaps,  that  all  the  letters  on  the  card  in  all  our  tachistoscopic 
tests  fall  easily  within  the  angle  of  acute  vision.  The  effect  of 
narrowing  the  attention  to  a  portion  of  the  card  was  to  get  a 
few  letters  in  great  clearness  at  the  expense  of  any  imagery 


26^  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

of  the  rest  of  the  card  however  vague,  to  increase  the  number 
of  "Certain"  choices,  and  to  decrease  the  influence  of  'fringe' 
imagery  in  determining  R  cases  in  "Uncertain"  choices. 

That  the  latter  influence  was  present  is  indicated  by  the  time- 
relations  between  the  right  and  wrong  cases  in  Uncertain  choices : 
If  the  four  averages  containing  the  greatest  increase  in  time  of 
"R  over  W  cases,  the  four  containing  the  least  increase,  and  the 
five  containing  decrease  in  time,  are  selected  and  compared,  we 
get  the  following  table : 

Increase  in  time  .54",  Ratio        R :  W         1.40 

"      "  .125",  "  "  .93 

Decrease  "      "  .14",  "  "  .83 

Which  indicates  that  in  "Uncertain"  choices  time  was  a  func- 
tion of  R  cases.  It  should  be  noted  that  when  R  cases  are  not 
influenced  by  'fringe'  imagery,  the  ratio  of  R:W  should  be  i., 
and  that  the  table  shows  in  the  ratios  of  lower  value  an  opposing 
influence  which  will  be  discussed  later  as  the  effect  of  preceding 
impressions.  In  "Certain"  choices,  of  course,  R  cases  correlate 
with  less  time. 

Variation  between  reagents  in  extent  of  the  card  attended 
to  is  indicated  by  the  location  of  letters  in  "Certain"  choices:  ist 
line,  Hhs. ;  ist  and  2d  line,  Hs.,  Rt,  Wn.2,  Ck. ;  ist  and  2d 
mainly,  Al;  3  lines,  Br.,  Wn.i. 

The  averages  emphasize  three  types : 


Lines 

I 

2 

3 

Hhs. 

24 

2 

I 

Hs.,  Wn.,  Rt.,  Ck. 

14 

10 

3 

Al.,  Br. 

9 

19 

8 

Other  factors  of  variation  in  the  processes  involved  especially 
ill  "Uncertain"  choices,  as  shown  by  quantitative  analysis,  are 
the  influences  of  favorite  letters,  of  similar  letters,  of  the  position 
of  the  letters  exhibited  for  choice,  and  of  preceding  letters. 

All  of  the  reagents  favored  or  ignored  particular  letters,  al- 
though these  letters  rarely  retained  their  special  status  throughout 
both  tests,  but  rarely  exchanged  their  status  in  the  final  test. 
This  influence  is  verified  by  the  fact  that  choice  of  the  favorite 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  203 

letter  is  made  in  shorter  time,  besides  being  shown  by  greater 
frequency  in  a  tabulation  of  all  letters  chosen. 

Partiality  for  the  left  or  right  letter  exhibited  for  choice  was 
shown  by  all  reagents  and  is  constant  for  both  tests;  in  five 
cases  it  was  as  high  as  1:2. 

Influence  of  preceding  letters  was  suspected  when  it  was  noted 
that  wrong  cases  would  frequently  have  been  right  for  preceding 
cards,  and  was  found  by  comparing  the  number  of  identical 
letters  preceding  the  recorded  letter  with  the  number  preceding 
the  true  letter.     The  aggregate  shows  the  influence  clearly : 

Preceding  cards 
1st  2d  3d 

Certain  choices  27.8%  5.3%  1.5% 

Uncertain  choices  94%  45-0%  -6.5% 

This  influence  upon  "Certain"  choices  was  shown  only  by 
space  error,  and  must  have  been  effective  through  facilitating 
perception  ;^^^  upon  "Uncertain"  choices  it  was  shown  by  both 
space  error  in  R  cases  and  by  W  cases,  and  must  have  been 
effective,  in  the  former,  by  augmenting  'fringe'  imagery  into 
determining  influence,  in  the  latter,  by  either  augmenting 
'fringe'  imagery  of  a  similar  letter,  or  by  persisting  to  the 
exclusion  of  'fringe'  imagery  from  the  last  perception. ^^- 

A  factor  working  for  wrong  cases,  especially  in  "Not  just 
certain"  choices,  and  counteracting  the  influence  of  preceding 
letters  toward  R  cases  in  "Uncertain"  choices,  was  the  influence 
of  similar  letters.    All  errors  in  "Certain"  choices  were  attribut- 

^'^  Schumann  (Die  Erkennung  von  Buchstaben  und  Worten  bei  momentaren 
Beleuchtung.  Bericht  u.d.  I.  Kongress  f.  Exp.  Psychol.,  1904:36)  inferred 
from  the  fact  that  the  recognized  letters  were  not  always  those  most  clearly 
seen,  that  the  recognition  of  letters  must  be  assisted  by  residua  of  previous 
perceptions  of  them. 

"^  In  tachistoscopic  presentation  of  mutilated  typewritten  words,  Pillsbury 
(A  study  in  apperception.  Am.  Jr.  Psychol.,  1896-7,  8:355,  357,  359)  found 
an  unconscious  effect  of  preceding  words  upon  the  word-completion  process; 
introspective  report  of  the  absence  of  an  association  determining  the  comple- 
tion was  untrustworthy.  McComas  (Some  types  of  attention.  Psych.  Rev. 
Mon.,  191 1,  No.  55,  p.  33)  also  found,  in  tachistoscopic  work,  a  determining 
influence  from  presentations  given  2  min.  and  5  min.  earlier;  content  appeared 
to  lie  dormant  until  reported  as  seen  on  a  later  card. 


204  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

able  to  this  cause,  and  revealed  as  similar  letters,  TH,  MW,  DB, 
XK,  NY,  RB,  PR,  NK,  CQ,  YV,  BK. 

In  testing  for  the  influence  of  training  in  the  reproduction  of 
imagery  upon  this  test  we  cannot  use  the  gross  scores  of  R 
cases;  increase  of  reproduction  is  consistent  with  an  increase  of 
W  cases  in  "Not  just  certain"  choices  because  of  the  similarity 
of  letters;  we  are  consequently  limited  to  the  "Uncertain" 
choices,  and,  although  they  are  influenced  as  shown  above  by 
many  factors  of  variation,  they  furnish  evidence  that  the  training 
produced  some  effect. 

Since  the  range  of  initial  capacity  was  but  from  43%  to 
50%,  results  may  be  grouped  and  handled  with  a  degree  of 
confidence.  The  regular  reagents  show  a  greater  increase  in 
R  cases : 

First  Final        Difference 

Regular  44.8%  58.1%  +13.3 

Control  45-9%  50.0%  +  4.1 

Part  of  this  increase  must  be  due  to  the  'maturing'  of 
'fringe'  imagery  as  is  indicated  by  the  greater  increase  in  the 
time  of  the  R  over  the  W  cases  in  the  final  test : 

First  test  .04" 

Final  test  .25" 

It  was  pointed  out  above  that  time  here  is  a  function  of  R  cases. 
This  increase  is  not  shared  by  the  control  reagents  nor  by  one 
of  the  regular  reagents  (Wn.)  who  in  her  training  avoided 
reproduction  of  simple  imagery. 

Since  there  was  some  increase  of  influence  of  preceding  letters, 
it  is  possible  that  this  influence  tended,  more  than  in  the  case 
of  the  control  reagents,  to  augment  the  'fringe'  imagery  of 
the  last  presentation  in  a  way  similar  to  the  effect  of  this 
influence  in  facilitating  perception  in  cases  of  "Certain"  choices. 
If  the  'fringe'  material  from  preceding  cards  is  not  'matured' 
about  a  nucleus  of  'fringe'  imagery  from  the  last  presentation, 
its  influence  would  be  toward  W  cases;  and  the  above  table 
indicates  by  per  cents  below  probability  (50%)  that  this  occurred 
in  the  work  of  both  groups  in  the  first  test,  and  it  may  have 
occurred  and  have  been  overcome  by  its  opposing  factor  in  the 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  205 

final  test.  That  this  balance  occurred  in  the  case  of  the  control 
reagents  seems  evident  from  the  slight  increase  in  the  per  cent 
of  R  cases,  as  is  shown  by  the  table  above,  in  spite  of  great 
increase  in  the  amount  of  influence  from  preceding  cards: 

First  Final        Difference 

Regular  13.3%  16.7%  +  3.4 

Control  18.2%  32.5%  +14.3 

This  table  also  shows  that  the  control  reagents  were  somewhat 
more  influenced  by  preceding  letters  than  were  the  regular 
reagents  in  the  first  test.  The  effect  of  the  interval  upon  the 
control  reagents  was  to  shift  this  influence  toward  the  more  re- 
mote cards  and  to  make  it  independent  of  imagery  from  the 
last  presentation.  The  effect  of  the  training  upon  Hs.  and  Rt. 
was  to  shift  this  influence  to  the  more  recent  cards  and  to 
combine  it  with  'fringe'  imagery  of  the  last  presentation. 

(2)   Reproduction  and  Recognition  of  Letters^^^ 

The  results  of  this  test  furnish  another  forceful  illustration 
of  the  worthlessness  of  merely  quantitative  treatment  of  'mental 
tests.' 

Initial  capacity  in  recording  letters  from  a  12-letter-rectangle 
exhibited  o.i'"  ranged  from  4.15  to  10.05  points.  The  three 
regular  reagents  occupy  the  three  higher  places.  With  one  ex- 
ception gains  in  the  final  test  vary  inversely  with  initial  capacity. 
The  final  capacity  of  but  one  control  reagent  exceeded  the  low- 
est initial  capacity  of  the  regular  reagents,  and  that  exceeded 
by  40%  the  final  capacities  of  two  reagents  who  trained,  in 
the  preceding  experiment,  on  this  work  for  18  days.  Intro- 
spections offer  no  explanation. 

The  recognition  part  of  the  experiment,  designed  to  test 
for  reproductive  tendencies  too  weak  to   reach  the  threshold, 

"'Experimental  work  justifying  our  selection  of  this  test  has  been  done 
by  Robert  Mac  Dougall  (Recognition  and  recall.  Jr.  Philos.  Psych.  &  Sci. 
Meth.  1904,  1:229-233)  who  used  words  for  his  material.  He  found  that 
where  about  a  half  were  reproduced  through  recall,  about  three-fourths  were 
recognized.  "Characteristic  differences  between  recall  and  recognition,"  have 
been  more  recently  studied  by  Hollingworth  (Am.  Jr.  Psych.  1913,  24:532- 
544). 


MS  JOHN  EDGAR  CO  OVER 

was  ill  advised  owing  to  the  impossibility  of  checking  reagents 
in  their  recognition  and  of  equating  their  scores. 

Two  important  facts,  however,  may  be  extracted  from  the 
results. 

The  regular  reagent  who  avoided  reproduction  of  simple 
imagery  in  her  training  and  who  was  not  benefited  by  the  'matur- 
ing' of  the  'fringe'  imagery  in  "Undecided"  choices  in  the 
preceding  test  (Wn.)  lost  6.2%  while  the  other  two  regular 
reagents  gained  7%  and  5%  respectively,  yet  her  initial 
capacity  was  slightly  below  their's. 

And  the  introspective  evidence  of  variability  in  processes 
recorded  in  Test  17  of  the  preceding  experiment  is  supplemented 
by  similar  evidence  showing  that  this  variability  appears  in 
each  'moment'  of  the  experiment;  particularly  in  four  of  the 
five  intervals  into  which  the  experiment  naturally  falls :  ( i ) 
In  the  'Anlage'  between  "Ready"  and  the  stimulus;  (2)  In 
the  direction  and  distribution  of  the  attention  during  the  per- 
ception, especially  with  reference  to  the  treatment  of  the  after-! 
image  which  persists  after  the  screen  has  fallen;  (3)  In  the 
process  during  the  voluntary  interval  between  perception  and 
recording;  (4)  In  the  process  of  coordinating  the  maturing, 
retaining,  and  reproducing  part-processes,  during  recording. 

(3)   Sound  Discrimination 

It  will  be  remembered  that  the  work  of  this  test  is  the  same 
in  kind  as  the  work  of  the  training,  the  only  difference  being 
that  here  the  sound-pendulum  was  used  instead  of  the  fall- 
phonometer  {i.e.,  the  sounds  were  produced  with  wood  instead 
of  with  steel),  and  the  time-intervals  between  stimuli  were  all 
short   (about  3''). 

(a)  Processes 

Reagents  were  not  shown  the  sound-pendulum  or  the  man- 
ner of  producing  the  sounds,  in  order  to  avoid  the  'stimulus 
error'  and  the  complication  of  visual  imagery.  But  usually 
curiosity   was   evinced   as   to   how   the   sounds    were  produced, 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  207, 

and  in  almost  all  cases  visual  imagery  of  imaginary  apparatus 
was  frequent  in  the  process  of  discrimination. 

Hs.  used  auditory  imagery  for  judging,  and  in  both  tests 
speaks  of  comparing  the  images;  in  the  second  test  she  speaks 
of  ease  of  judging  in  one  series  because  the  auditory  image 
of  the  first  stimulus  remained  in  her  mind  without  effort.  Bui; 
in  the  beginning  of  the  second  test  she  also  compared  the 
image  of  the  first  with  the  sensation  of  the  second  stimulus, 
only  bringing  the  latter  into  imagery  for  comparison  when  the 
judgment  was  at  first  doubtful.  She  was  helped  by  kinaesthetic 
imagery  into  which  the  stimuli  were  converted  by  singing  the 
tone,  by  striking  or  pressing  down  or  weighing  with  her  arms 
and  hands,  etc.  When  the  kinaesthetic  and  auditory  bases 
of  judgment  conflicted  she  speaks  of  following  the  latter.  She 
had  considerable  visual  imagery  which  was  regarded  as  a 
hindrance :  of  the  experimenter  holding  a  hammer  and  knock- 
ing on  the  table,  of  a  scale  for  distributing  intensities,^^'*  and 
of  steel  balls  falling.  Another  distraction  was  the  anticipation 
of  the  second  stimulus.  An  affective  image,  as  of  knocking 
in  the  back  of  the  head,  is  spoken  of  at  the  beginning  of  the 
first  test;  and  an  auditory  image  of  her  own  voice  singing  the 
stimulus  occurred  in  the  second.  The  interval  of  training  seems 
to  have  diminished  the  visual  imagery  and  other  distractions, 
leaving  her  with  the  general  method  of  holding  the  auditory 
image  of  the  first  stimulus  as  a  basis  of  judgment  upon  the 
impression  of  the  second  or  of  comparing  with  the  image  of 
the  second  in  case  the  difference  seemed  doubtful. 

Wn.  also  has  varied  imagery  as  bases  of  judgment;  but  her 
kinaesthetic  imagery  is  perhaps  predominant,  affective  imagery 
following,  then  visual  and  auditory.  She  speaks  several  times 
in  her  introspections  in  the  first  test,  of  comparing  images; 
sometimes  these  are  a  combination  of  auditory  and  kinaesthetic ; 
and  in  case  of  doubt  she  reviews  them  over  and  over  in  her 
mind.  Her  kinaesthetic  imagery  began  immediately  and  con- 
tinued  throughout:      She   tried    to    remember    by   kinaesthetic 

'"  Cf.  Angell,  F. :  Phil.  Studien.     1892.    7 :  414-468  . 


2o8  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

image  in  the  mouth,  head  and  arms  ( i :  i ) ,  pressed  the  teeth 
together  (1:2),  tried  to  sing  the  stimuU  (1:3,  2:7),  nodded 
head  (1:10);  and  several  times  the  stimulus  could  be  recalled 
only  through  kinaesthetic  imagery  (1:6,  7).  She  had  affective 
imagery:  felt  knocks  in  the  head  (1:1),  "feel  the  sound  be- 
fore I  hear  it;  if  'feel'  and  'sound'  do  not  agree  I  make  both 
intensities  with  my  arms;  this  aids  my  judgment  more  than 
auditory  images"  (1:5).  Distracting  influences  were  the  visual 
imagery  of  woodpeckers  and  trees  (1:1),  of  E  with  a  little 
wooden  peg  (1:2)  or  hammer  (1:4),  of  toy  men  hammering 
a  block  (though  she  thought  this  helped)  (1:6);  anticipation 
of  the  second  stimulus  (1:3);  bothering  about  the  instrument 
(i  13)  ;  bothered  because  of  so  many  "greater"  judgments  (i  :8) 
or  "less"  judgments  (2:7).  The  interval  of  training  seems 
to  have  qualified  her  to  give  judgment  upon  the  second  impres- 
sion; she  says  she  compared  auditory  image  with  auditory 
impression  (2:1).  Her  kinaesthetic  imagery  continues,  mov- 
ing hand  as  if  it  held  the  hammer  (2:7);  and  so  does  the 
affective :  "feel  the  little  hammer  in  my  head  and  myself 
knocking  with  it"  (2:2).  The  visual  imagery  does  not  seem 
quite  so  frequent.  Although  the  interval  was  not  over  a  few 
seconds,  she  felt  that  she  makes  the  sounds  more  and  more 
alike  as  she  recalls  them  (2:6),  which  indicates  that  voluntary 
strengthening  of  the  first  stimulus  may  account  for  her  type 
which  was  shown  in  her  training  results. 

Rt.  from  the  first  protested  that  he  carried  no  image  of  the 
first  stimulus  over  to  the  second  (1:1,3);  but  that  he  "re- 
thinks" if  not  "re-images"  it  (1:1).  When  he  thinks  "just  how 
loud  was  that  sound?"  and  dwells  upon  its  intensity,  he  be- 
comes confused  in  his  judgment  upon  the  second  (1:4).  An 
attentive  attitude  less  than  maximum  was  most  satisfactory 
(1:3.  4»  5)-  The  probabiHty  of  a  symbol  of  opposite  meaning 
following  several  like  symbols  in  succession  in  a  series,  he 
thinks,  may  have  occasionally  influenced  his  judgment  in  doubt- 
ful cases  (1:7).  In  both  tests  he  was  bothered  by  rhythm  which 
would   run   through   his   head   and   tend   to   make   the   second 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  209 

Stimulus  louder  or  weaker  than  it  really  was  (1:8,  9;  2:4). 
The  effect  of  the  training  was  to  make  these  'wooden'  sounds 
seem  "novel";  he  was  very  uncertain  of  his  judgment  in  the 
first  series  of  the  second  test,  and  his  score  was  low.  But 
in  his  3d  series  he  underscored  four  out  of  his  nine  judgments, 
showing  that  confidence  soon  returned.  And  near  the  end  of 
the  test  he  says:  "The  whole  of  the  work  today  is  so  much 
easier  to  follow,  with  the  short  [temporal]  interval  [between 
the  stimuli]    (2:8). 

Al.  thinks  that  she  compares  impressions  that  seem  to  be  in 
her  head,  in  making  judgment  (1:1);  she  attentively  fixes  the 
first  and  waits  a  few  moments  after  the  second  stimulus  has 
been  received  before  judging.  But  by  the  middle  of  the  first 
test  she  remarks  that  it  does  not  take  so  long  to  judge  (1:5); 
even  then,  the  first  sound  seemed  to  be  an  impression  in  her 
head.  After  the  interval  the  clear  differences  were  judged  upon 
the  receipt  of  the  second  stimulus;  the  smaller  differences,  after 
a  few  seconds  of  comparison  (2:1-3).  Later  in  the  test  she 
felt  the  eft'ect  of  practice  (2 :4,  6)  when  the  differences  were 
clearer  and  judgment  was  more  readily  given.  The  second 
test  seemed  much  easier. 

Hhs.  made  judgment  immediately  upon  hearing  the  second 
stimulus;  seems  to  have  classified  his  sounds  as  light,  medium, 
harder,  (as  of  striking  a  board)  (1:7,  2:4)  and  also  without 
using  the  class-names  (2:8-10).  He  had  visual  imagery  of  a 
metronome  (1:6),  and  of  some  one  striking  a  board  with  a 
small  mallet.  Thinks  the  second  test  a  little  easier,  and  that 
there  were  more  clear  intervals  in  it.  Shows  considerable 
practice-effect  in  the  first  test :  3.  3.  i.  4-  3.  5-  5.  5.  5 »  6. 

Br.  uses  as  a  basis  for  judgment  the  effect  the  sound  works 
upon  him  (i ;  2:1).  To  this  he  added  a  sort  of  a  classification. 
The  second  test  seemed  much  easier  than  the  first;  more  clear 
differences. 

Ty.  thinks  she  compares  auditory  images,  at  first  (1:1), 
which  when  clearly  different  are  outside  (1:4),  but  when  not, 
they  are  brought  inside  the  body  and  converted  into  a  "tactual" 


2IO  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

image  in  the  eyes  and  nose  (i  14) .  She  has  some  kinaesthetic 
imagery  in  the  arm  as  if  striking  (i  14,  2  :3).  After  the  interval 
there  is  some  change :  she  weights  the  after-images  of  the 
stimuH,  if  their  difference  is  sHght,  in  her  ear  (2:2)  ;  and  has 
kinaesthetic  images  in  ear  and  throat  (2  :6)  and  chest  in  breath- 
ing (2:6);  sometimes  of  humming  the  stimulus  (2:6)  or  tap- 
ping it;  and  feels  that  the  after-image  of  the  second  stimulus 
is  louder  than  it  should  be  (2:5);  the  change  in  general  was 
toward  kinaesthetic  and  possibly  affective  (tension  in  the  ear) 
conversion. 

Dn.  says  that  in  comparing  sounds  his  "mind  was  concentrated 
on  a  point  inside  the  ear"  (1:2);  he  compared  controlled  ex- 
halations of  his  breath,  like  carrying  the  tone  of  a  piano  in 
the  roof  of  the  mouth;  less  intensity,  smaller  volume  of  breath 
breathed  out.  He  also  classified  sometimes.  In  the  second  test 
the  same  method  was  continued,  except  that  in  breathing  the 
tone  the  tension  of  the  throat  muscles  was  taken  into  account; 
and  it  was  supplemented  by  kinaesthetic  imagery  of  the  head 
and  arms  as  in  nodding  or  striking;  of  the  toes,  as  pressing  down 
for  a  heavy  tone,  raising  for  light  (perhaps  transferred  from 
piano-playing). 

These  analyses  indicate  clearly  that  for  the  unskilled  reagent 
discrimination  of  intensities  of  sound  is  a  very  variable  pro- 
cess. Practice  may  not  lead  to  improvement,  as  was  shown 
by  our  trained  reagents,  and  is  verified  here  by  Ty.  and  Dn., 
and  the  chief  causes  of  retrogression  are  indirect  methods  of 
dealing  with  the  stimuli;  Wn,  Ty.,  and  Dn.  are  the  clearest 
examples  of  this. 

A  point  of  interest  is  that  the  'wooden'  sounds  caused  the 
trained  reagents  some  interference  after  their  habituation  to  the 
'metallic'  sounds  of  the  training:  Rt.  recorded  that  these 
sounds  seemed  "novel"  and  he  was  consequently  very  uncertain 
in  his  judgments,  in  the  beginning  of  the  second  test;  and 
the  sum  of  R  cases  in  the  first  two  series  in  the  final  test  was 
lower  for  each  of  the  three  reagents  than  in  the  corresponding 
series  in  the  first  test.  By  the  third  series,  however,  the 
interference  had  been  overcome. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  211 

(b)   Scores 

Initial  capacity  ranged  from  48.8%  to  76.3%  R  cases.  The 
three  regular  reagents  occupy  the  three  higher  places,  and  their 
scores  in  the  final  test  change  in  a  way  consistent  with  the 
results  of  their  training:  Hs.  and  Wn.,  who  lost  consistently 
in  their  training,  lost  here;  Hs.  owing  to  conditions  of  health, 
and  to  her  extraordinary  score  in  the  first  test;  Wn.  to  the 
development  of  the  inadequate  method  of  classification  and  asso- 
ciation which  prevented  treatment  of  the  stimuli  in  terms  of 
simple  auditory  or  kinaesthetic  imagery.  Rt.,  who,  although 
he  showed  loss  in  the  latter  part  of  his  training  yet  showed  gain 
in  the  intermediate  part,  made  a  slight  gain.  Thus  the  training 
effect  shows  itself  in  this  test. 

The  control  reagents  whose  initial  capacity  was  nearly  as 
high  as  that  of  Wn.  and  Rt.  also  lost,  Dn.  losing  the  greatest 
amount  owing  to  the  development  of  an  indirect  kinaesthetic 
method  which  was  not  so  trustworthy  as  his  earlier  method 
of  basing  judgment  upon  'affects'  or  more  direct  kinaesthetic 
imagery.  The  detrimental  effect  of  an  indirect  method  of 
discrimination  has  already  been  pointed  out. 

(4)  Memory  for  Visual  Symbols 

(a)  Processes 

In  general  all  reagents  were  more  or  less  helpless  at  the 
beginning  of  this  test  because  the  symbols  were  strange  and 
evaded  fixing.  Almost  all  avoided  the  pure  visual  effort  for 
which   the   test   was   designed  ;^^°    they   compared   the    symbols 

*^  In  this  respect  they  conform  with  the  work  of  Ebert  and  Meumann's 
(op.  cit.,  pp.  50,  116)  reagents,  who  declared  that  the  symbols  could  not  be 
learned  from  the  pure  visual  impressions.  Kuhlmann  (On  the  analysis  of 
the  memory  consciousness,  a  study  in  the  mental  imagery  and  memory  of 
meaningless  forms.  Psych.  Rev.,  13:342)  also  found  indirect  methods  of 
memorizing  largely  employed:  associations,  verbal  descriptions,  motor  ten- 
dencies of  eye  and  hand.  And  in  another  place  (Problems  in  the  analysis 
of  memory  consciousness.  Jr.  Philos.  Psych.  &  Sci.  Meth.  1907,  4:5-6)  he 
points  out  a  more  subtle  mode  of  vicarious  functioning;  through  the  more 
or  less  extended  organic  reactions  which  are  evoked  by  any  sensory  stimulus. 


212  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

with  conventional  characters  and  things,  gave  them  the  names 
of  these  associated  characters  and  things,  and  remembered  the 
names,  usually  at  first  without  the  support  of  visual  imagery- 
necessary  to  record  correctly. 

Owing  to  the  inexperience  of  the  control  reagents  in  intro- 
spection but  little  knowledge  is  at  hand  of  their  processes; 
though  that  little  points  to  a  freer  use  of  visual  imagery  and 
visual  association  of  the  forms  of  the  symbols,  than  was  true 
with  the  trained  reagents. 

1 )  Immediate  Memory 

The  process  of  introspecting  after  recording  from  the  single 
presentation  of  six  symbols  was  difficult,  and  the  processes  of 
perception  and  reproduction  were  very  imperfectly  revealed. 
There  was  sufficient  evidence,  however,  to  indicate  that  there 
was  large  individual  variation. 

For  the  'note'  forms,  the  effort  was  a)  to  visualize  the  pre- 
sentation (Hs.),  b)  to  transpose  the  content  into  a  visual  scheme 
using  the  musical  staff  (Wn.),  or  c)  to  classify  the  flags  accord- 
ing to  spatial  relations  (Rt.). 

For  the  'sickle'  forms,  the  effort  was  generally  verbal,  to 
name  conventional  characters  to  which  the  symbols  were  similar, 
and  to  reproduce  from  kinaesthetic-auditory  imagery. 

2)  Complete  Learning 

The  trained  reagents  show  clearly  in  their  introspections 
that  the  processes  employed  in  the  'complete  learnmg'  are  quite 
complex  and  variable. 

For  the  'note'  forms  there  were  three  methods  of  learning 
employed:  a)  Naming  the  number  and  positions  of  the  flags 
in  the  consecutive  symbols,  for  recall  in  verbal  imagery  (Hs., 
Wn.,  Hhs.)  ;  b)  classifying  the  symbols  according  to  the  num- 
ber of  flags,  and  their  relations  of  symmetry,  counting  the 
symbols  to  identify  related  symbols  by  number,  for  recall  in 
mixed  imagery  largely  visual   (Rt.,  Br.,  Hd.)  ;  c)   combination 


the  lack  of  prominence  of  which  in  consciousness  is  no  criterion  of  their 
utility.  Bentley's  statement  that  the  aids  to  complete  recollection  may  become 
the  real  vehicle  of  retention,  has  already  been  referred  to  (foot-note,  p.  190). 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  213 

of  naming  and  classifying  (Al.,  Hn.)-  With  methods  a)  and  c) 
a  few  symbols  at  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  the  series  were 
usually  held  in  pure  visual  imagery.  The  fact  that  the  learning 
of  this  series  may  involve  very  different  kinds  of  work  is  illus- 
trated by  reagents  employing  methods  a)   and  b)   respectively: 

a)  Hs.  learned  the  series  by  naming,  i.  lower,  middle,  2.  middle 
top,  3.  one  middle,  4.  two  middle,  5.  two  bottom;  etc.  It  was 
a  straightforward  'rote'  method,  converting  the  presentation 
into  verbal  imagery;  this  was  made  vivid  by  verbal  repetition, 
and  was  recalled  through  kinaesthetic-auditory  imagery,  sup- 
ported by  visual  memory.  Wn.  also  named  but  used  slightly 
different  terms,  adding  left  and  right,  and  supported  her  verbal 
imagery  with  kinaesthetic  imagery  of  direction  in  neck  and 
arm.  b)  Rt.  used  the  early  presentations  for  inspecting  the 
symbols  and  seeking  relations  in  the  position  of  the  flags;  then 
he  began  counting  the  symbols  as  they  passed  the  window  and 
fixing  related  pairs:  No.  7  is  No.  i  inverted,  6  is  12  reversed, 
9  is  I  with  flags  at  half-mast,  etc. ;  and  by  drawing  the  symbol 
in  the  air  with  his  pen  while  cognizing  it  and  repeating  the 
number,  he  formed  associations  between  pen-movement  for 
reproduction  and  the  number  of  the  symbol;  reproduction  was 
supported  by  visual  imagery.  This  was  a  more  logical  method, 
involving  the  apperception  of   relations. 

For  the  'sickle'  forms,  the  same  three  kinds  of  methods  were 
used,  and  with  two  exceptions  the  reagents  carried  over  the 
methods  they  had  used  with  the  'note'  forms:  a)  the  symbols 
were  named  by  calling  them  h,  ?,  ?  inverted,  wrong  v,  right  v, 
y  inverted,  g,  5,  etc.,  and  in  reproduction  the  kinaesthetic- 
auditory  imagery  was  supported  by  visual  imagery  (Hs.,  Wn.)  ; 

b)  the  symbols  were  classified  according  to  form  (Rt.);  or  c) 
were  learned  by  classifying  some  and  naming  others  (Al.,  Hd.). 
Hhs.  used  method  a)  in  his  first  test  and  b)  in  his  final;  and 
Hd.,  who  used  method  b)  with  the  'note'  forms,  used  method 

c)  here. 

In  the  final  test  methods  usually  continued  without  much 
change,  except  on  the  part  of  three  control  reagents :  Br.  chan^-ed 


214 


JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 


to  a  more  purely  visual  method,  Hn.  from  more  purely  visual  to 
naming  and  visual,  and  Hd.  introduced  a  method  of  counting  and 
fixing  forms  in  their  positions  (the  method  Rt.  used  in  both 
tests). 

The  effect  of  the  interval  was  to  make  the  test  easier  for  all 
reagents ;  this  was  so  marked  that  a  third  of  them  assumed  that 
the  series  of  the  final  test  was  identical  with  that  of  the  first,  and 
felt  a  strong  recognition  for  some  of  the  sequences.  The  prin- 
cipal factors  contributing  to  this  were:  (a)  Familiarity  with 
the  symbols,  b)  concrete  knowledge  of  the  demands  of  the  test, 
c)  possession  of  a  method,  d)  in  some  cases  an  improvement  in 
method. 

(b)   Scores 

If  increase  in  facility  of  reproduction  of  imagery  can  be 
shown  at  all,  it  must  appear  in  increased  scores.  In  some  cases, 
however,  the  scores  are  affected  by  change  in  method  and  are 
unreliable  as  measures  of  reproductivity ;  and  in  all  cases,  pre- 
sumably, there  was  some  improvement  in  the  application  of 
method  leading  to  more  adequate  impression  of  the  stimulus, 
which  cannot  be  separated  from  the  factor  of  reproductivity  in 
the  scores. 

i)  Immediate  Memory 

Since  the  tests  in  'immediate  memory'  were  necessarily  short, 
incidental  causes  of  variation,  including  direction  and  distribu- 
tion of  attention,  must  play  a  correspondingly  large  role.  And 
since  it  happens  that  all  of  the  control  reagents,  except  possibly 
Hn.,  worked  more  freely  with  visual  imagery  than  did  the  more 
mature  regular  reagents,  they  probably  received  more  benefit 
from  the  practice-effect  of  the  test,  and  this  advantage  might 
more  than  off-set  a  slight  increase  in  reproductivity  brought  by 
the  regular  reagents  from  their  training. 

Individual  variation  in  initial  efficiency,  for  the  'note'  forms, 
ranged  from  o  to  .329  (i  representing  a  perfect  score),  and  for 
the  'sickle'  forms,  from  .080  to  .414.  Per  cent  of  improvement 
was  reckoned  upon  the  final  score  and  is  too  irregular  to  make 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  215 

the  examination  of  the  tables  profitable.  It  ranged,  for  the  'note' 
forms,  from  25  per  cent  loss  to  100  per  cent  gain,  and  the  control 
reagents  show  the  best  gains;  for  the  'sickle'  forms,  from  o  to 
81  per  cent;  neither  group  of  reagents  shows  advantage  over 
the  other.  Several  scores  are  of  interest:  Wn.'s  great  improve- 
ment in  the  test  on  'note'  forms  was  due  to  a  change  of  method 
from  the  use  of  the  musical  stafif  to  naming;  Hhs.'s  o  score  in 
his  first  test  was  due  to  inverting  each  of  the  two  symbols  he 
retained  (visually) ;  Rt.'s  large  improvement  on  the  'sickle' 
forms  was  owing  to  greater  facility  in  classification.  The  great- 
est and  most  consistent  gain  on  both  forms  was  made  by  Hd., 
shown  later  to  be  a  special  case,  indicating  that  training  in 
memorizing  'literal'^^^  prose  increased  efficiency  in  this  test. 

2)   Complete  Learning 

The  'complete  learning'  enabled  the  reagent  to  collect  himself 
and  work  out  a  method  in  the  course  of  the  first  test;  and  the 
variation  in  the  factors  of  attention  and  adaptation  was  not  so 
potent  a  source  of  error. 

Initial  efficiency  ranged,  for  the  'note'  forms,  from  15  to 
31.3  presentations,  for  the  'sickle'  forms,  from  12.3  to  42.8  pre- 
sentations. The  trained  reagents  took,  in  general,  fewer  pre- 
sentations than  did  the  control  reagents. 

Improvement  was  reckoned  in  per  cent,  of  initial  efficiency: 


R^ 

egular 

1st  Control 

2d  Control 

'Note'  forms 

Hs. 

(15) 

53.3 

Wn. 

(16) 

46.3 

Al.       (19.6)  53-1 

Rt. 

(23) 

52.2 

Br.      (24)      20.8 
Hhs.    (31.3)  42.5 

*Hd.   (25.6)  45.2 
Hn.  (26.2)  39.9 

'Sickle'  forms 

Hs. 

(12.3) 

50.4 

Hhs.    (24)      19.2 

*Hd.  (25.2)  64.3 

Wn. 

(29.1) 

52.9 

Rt. 

(42.8) 

S0.9 

The  number  in  parenthesis  shows  initial  capacity  in  number  of  presenta- 
tions ;  reagents  are  ranged  according  to  initial  capacity. 


*Hd.  is  shown  later  to  be  a  special  case. 


"'  In  'literal'   prose  the  learning  must  be   'word  perfect' ;  which  contrasts 
with  'substance'  prose,  in  which  reproduction  of  ideas  is  tested. 


2i6  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

Since  initial  capacity  of  the  regular  reagents  was  higher  than 
that  of  the  control  reagents,  they  could  scarcely  be  expected  to 
show  as  much  improvement  unless  there  was  a  relatively  greater 
increase  of  capacity  in  reproduction;  the  fact  that  they  show 
greater  improvement  than  four  control  reagents  out  of  five, 
therefore,  seems  good  evidence  of  a  definite  advantage.  Aver- 
ages indicate  this  advantage  still  more  clearly: 

Note  Sickle 

Trained  50.6%  51-4% 

Control  38.870 

The  trained  reagents  were  somewhat  more  accurate  in  their 
reproductions :  In  the  first  test  two  out  of  six  records  were 
without  error,  as  against  one  out  of  five  by  the  control  group; 
and  in  the  final  test  they  made  four  out  of  six  without  error,  as 
against  three  out  of  six  by  the  control  group. 

One  of  the  control  reagents,  Hd.,  was  withdrawn  from  his 
group  in  the  consideration  of  results,  because  he  represents  an 
exception;  he  had  been  given  a  rather  severe  course  of  training 
in  'literal'  prose  by  his  fraternity  brothers  just  before  the  final 
tests.  And  although  literal  memorizing  is  hard  for  him,  and  he 
left  the  room  after  the  first  test  tired  out,  he  found  the  final  test 
unexpectedly  easy,  made  the  two  reproductions  without  error 
(both  scores  in  the  first  test  were  imperfect:  .937,  .833),  and 
reduced  presentations  45.2%  and  64.3%.  There  is  no  doubt  about 
the  influence  of  his  prose  training  upon  this  test. 

A  negative  'spread  of  training'  seems  to  be  indicated  by  Rt.'s 
results  in  the  first  test  in  'complete  learning.'  His  method  was 
that  of  classification  and  grouping,  and  introspections  show  that 
his  habit  of  disregarding  the  stem  in  the  'note'  forms,  which  was 
invariable,  was  carried  over  to  the  'sickle'  forms,  where  both 
stem  and  curve  were  variable,  and  caused  confusion;  he  learned 
the  'note'  forms  in  2t,  presentations,  while  it  took  42.8 
presentations  to  learn  the  'sickle'  forms.  Not  all  of  this  differ- 
ence, however,  should  be  attributed  to  negative  spread  of  train- 
ing, for  the  'sickle'  forms  are  more  difficult  to  classify  and  group 
than  are  the  'note'  forms. ^^'^ 

"'Though  not  necessarily  more  difficult  to  learn  by  naming,  as  is  shown 
by  the  initial  capacities  of  Hs. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  217 

(c)  Summary 

The  process  of  memorizing  visual  symbols  did  not  engage 
much  visual  imagery;  the  usual  method  was  to  associate  the 
symbol  with  some  familiar  thing  and  remember  it  by  verbal- 
motor  imagery  of  the  name  of  that  thing,  or  to  classify  the 
symbols  for  reproduction  from  logical  memory.  Visual  percep- 
tion served  principally  to  analyze  and  interpret  the  symbol  for 
conversion  into  verbal-motor  terms  or  to  effect  classification. 
Where  visual  imagery  was  used,  it  supported  the  more  promi- 
nent kinaesthetic-auditory.  The  complete  process  utilized  a  com- 
bination of  verbal-motor,  kinaesthetic,  visual,  and  auditory 
imagery. 

The  scores  of  the  'complete  learning'  show  that  although  the 
control  reagents  began  with  less  efficiency  and  therefore  might 
be  expected  to  make  greater  gain  than  the  trained  reagents,  the 
latter,  and  one  of  the  control  reagents  who  had  training  in 
memorizing  literal  prose,  made  more  improvement.  The  only 
explanation  at  hand  is  that  training  in  retaining  and  recalling 
imagery  occasioned  by  intensities  of  sound  contributed  to  facility 
in  retaining  and  recalling  the  combined  imagery  used  in  this  test. 

e.  Conclusion 

The  results  of  this  experiment  supplement  those  of  the  Ex- 
periment on  Attention  in  illustrating  the  variability  in  processes 
engaged  upon  a  simple  task  and  in  locating  the  variability  in  each 
of  the  successive  'moments'  of  a  test. 

Although  the  training,  with  its  evident  retention  and  repro- 
duction of  auditory  and  other  imagery,  did  not  result  in  im- 
provement in  sound  discrimination,  analysis  of  processes  used 
in  the  training  shows  change  in  those  processes,  and  training- 
effect  shows  itself  in  the  tests. 

In  Test  I.  (Recognition  or  Choice  of  One  of  Two  Letters) 
the  regular  reagents  increased  R  cases  in  'uncertain'  choices  due 
to  more  'maturing'  of  'fringe'  imagery  of  the  last  presentation 
and  to  strengthening  this  process  by  uniting  to  it  the  influence 
of  preceding  identical  letters. 

In  Test  2.   (Reproduction  and  Recognition  of  Letters)   the 


2i8  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

anomalous  results  emphasize  the  worthlessness  of  purely  quan- 
titative treatment  of  the  results  of  'mental  tests.' 

In  Test  3.  (Sound  Discrimination)  the  results  of  the  regular 
reagents  are  consistent  with  those  of  their  training  on  similar 
material;  but  habituation  to  the  'metalic'  sounds  in  the  training 
caused  interference  with  the  transference  of  practice-effect  in 
the  early  series  with  the  'wooden'  sounds  of  the  test.  The  great- 
est loss,  by  a  control  reagent,  illustrates  the  detrimental  effect  of 
an  indirect  method  of  discrimination,  thus  agreeing  with  the 
training  results  of  Wn. 

In  Test  4.  (Memory  of  Visual  Symbols)  the  trained  reagents 
show  their  advantage,  in  'complete  learning,'  over  the  control 
reagents,  except  in  the  case  of  Hd.  whose  large  and  consistent 
gains  in  both  'immediate  memory'  and  'complete  learning'  indi- 
cate clearly  that  his  inter-test  training  in  memorizing  literal  prose 
contributed  to  his  facility  in  memorizing  these  symbols. 

One  of  the  corroborating  facts  in  the  results  is  that  the  regular 
reagent  (Wn.)  who  avoided  using  simple  imagery  in  her  train- 
ing showed  less  gain  in  Test  i.  and  a  loss  in  Tests  2.  and  3., 
where  simple  imagery  was  requisite,  but  was  not  handicapped  in 
the  'complete  learning'  of  Test  4.,  where  the  imagery  could  be 
more  complex. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  all  the  gross  quantitative  results  of  Tests 
I,  2,  3,  and  of  'immediate  memory'  in  Test  4,  were  worthless; 
only  by  careful  analysis  of  scores  and  introspections  was  the  fact 
of  'spread  of  training'  made  evident  at  all. 

The  chief  contribution  of  the  experiment  is :  That  the  specific 
training  did  not  result  in  gain  in  efficiency  with  the  training  ma- 
terial, but  that  it  did  result  in  changes  in  the  processes  it  en- 
gaged and  it  showed  its  'general'  character  in  influencing  the 
piocesses  involved  in  Recognition  or  Choice  of  One  of  Two  Let- 
ters (Test  i)  and  in  'Complete  Learning'  of  visual  symbols 
(Test  4)  both  of  which  differed  radically  from  the  training  in 
sense-mode  of  impressions  and  in  methods  of  work. 

Facts  of  this  character,  already  noticed,  in  the  Experiment  on 
Attention,  in  the  failure  of  Al.  to  improve  after  his  third  day 
of  training  (p.  93),  and  in  the  failure  of  Rt.  and  SI.  in  their 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  219 

effort  to  apply  the  method  of  learning  developed  in  their  training 
to  commercial  signs  (p,  154),  indicate  that  not  only  is  there  gen- 
eral effect  of  special  practice,  both  negative  and  positive,  but 
there  is  an  occasional  negative  special  effect  of  special  practice: 
Changes  in  the  mental  processes  incidental  (i)  to  the  greater 
complexity  of  the  processes  involved  in  the  next  step  of  progress, 

(2)  to  the  conscious  application  of  a  method  already  automatic, 

(3)  to  the  development  of  a  method  which  neglects  the  essential 
process,  (4)  to  change  of  attitude  toward  the  experiment,  or 
(5)  to  chance  variation  in  the  processes,  may  cause  retrogression 
in  efficiency,  indicated  by  a  drop  in  the  practice-curve.  It  is  well 
known  that  in  continuous  practice  the  scores  on  the  immediately 
following  days  suffer  from  this  retrogression.  Retrogressive 
effect  of  special  practice  must  therefore  be  taken  into  account 
in  testing  for  general  effect.  This  negative  special  effect  shows 
itself  in  negative  general  effect  in  tests  similar  to  the  training, 
and  is  not  inconsistent  with  positive  general  effect  in  tests  less 
similar  to  the  training.  ^^^ 

3.  Critique  of  the  Test-Training -Test  Type  of  Experiment 


Much  has  already  been  said  by  way  of  a  critique  upon  the 
Test-Training-Test  type  of  experiment  in  the  introduction  to 
The  Experiment  on  Attention  (pp.  65-70)  and  under  the  head- 
ings of  Extent  and  Variability  (pp.  i67ff)  and  The  Practice 
Curve  (pp.  I73ff),  in  the  same  experiment,  as  well  as  through- 
out the  text  in  the  discussion  of  The  Test  Results;  but  it  seems 
desirable  to  bring  the  critique  together  into  a  plain  statement 
unencumbered  with  the  concrete  evidences  upon  which  it  is  based, 
and  to  illustrate  with  a  clear  hypothetical  case. 

The  prime  requisites  of  this  type  of  experiment  are  ( i )  that 
the  tests  shall  afford  a  reliable  measurement  of  a  known  process 
or  group  of  processes,  (2)  that  the  training-effect  shall  not  only 
be  measurable  but  shall  be  capable  of  definite  description  in  terms 
of  changes  in  processes,  and  (3)  that  change  in  efficiency  in  the 

'^  In    this    respect    it    resembles    'interference,'    which,    however,    is    more 
transient. 


220  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

final  test  shall  be  described  with  sufficient  precision  to  indicate 
its  dependence  upon,  or  independence  of,  the  training-effect. 
Only  when  these  requirements  are  met  can  the  functional  re- 
lationship of  mental  processes  of  various  kinds  be  determined 
with  certainty. 

In  order  that  the  processes  tested  can  be  known,  trustworthy 
introspection  is  essential.  If  it  is  dispensed  with,  or  if  it  is 
faulty,  the  test-averages  may  not  belong  to  the  same  denomina- 
tion, in  which  case  they  can  be  neither  grouped  nor  compared 
for  any  intelligible  purpose. 

Suppose  that  the  capacity  of  the  reagents  K.,  L.,  M.,  N.,  and 
P.  to  progress  from  station  A.  to  station  B.  is  measured  by  a 
test ;  that  K.  and  L.  are  trained  in  progressing  from  R.  to  S. ; 
and  all  are  again  given  the  test  from  A.  to  B.,  for  the  purpose 
of  determining  the  training-effect  upon  the  capacity  of  K.  and 
L.  Suppose  progression  in  this  illustration  is  made  by  travel, 
and  in  the  first  test  K.,  N.,  and  P.  walk,  and  L.  and  M.  ride 
bicycles;  in  the  training  K.  and  L.  both  walk;  and  in  the  final 
test  K.  and  P.  walk,  L.  and  M.  ride  bicycles,  and  N.  takes  an 
automobile.    Let  the  following  table  show  the  results,  in  minutes : 

Regular  Control 


K. 

L. 

M. 

N. 

P. 

Training  Beginning 

125 

130 

End 

95 

100 

Tests 

First 

125 

20 

25 

13s 

125 

Final 

lOO 

22 

20 

9 

120 

Difiference  — 25        -\-2        — 5      — 126         — 5 

Average  — 11.5  —45 

Conclusion:  Results  show  that  training  in  progression  from 
R  to  S.  has  a  negative  influence  upon  capacity  to  progress  from 
A.  to  B.,  since  the  practice-effect  of  the  first  test  upon  the  final 
("45)  greatly  exceeded  the  gain  (-11.5)  made  by  the  trained  men. 

Analysis  of  processes,  however,  shows  that  training-effect  was 
transferred  by  K. ;  he  used  the  same  processes,  as  affected  by 
practice,  in  the  final  that  he  did  in  his  first  test  and  in  his  train- 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  221 

ing.  A  negative  effect  is  shown  by  L.,  since  his  practice  in  walk- 
ing caused  his  bicychng  muscles  to  retrograde.  The  anomalous 
gain  of  N.  is  the  result  of  a  radical  change  in  processes,  inde- 
pendent of  the  purpose  of  the  test.  For  accurate  knowledge  of 
the  reliability  of  the  test-results  other  conditions  affecting  the 
progress  should  be  known :  whether  the  traveler  had  to  turn  out 
of  the  road  into  rough  footing  to  pass  vehicles,  whether  any 
part  of  the  road  was  slippery,  owing  to  the  sprinkling  cart  or 
rains,  whether  any  unusual  conditions  affected  the  work.  In 
other  words,  the  conditions  must  be  under  the  control  of  the 
experimenter  or  must  be  known  in  order  to  be  reckoned  with; 
and  in  mental  tests  these  conditions  are  both  objective  and 
subjective. 

This  illustration  represents  the  facts  all  too  accurately  for  the 
comfort  of  those  of  us  who  have  employed  this  type  of  experi- 
ment, and  have  struggled  with  anomalous  results.  Merely  quan- 
titative treatment  is  worthless.  Incidentally,  it  is  difficult  to  see 
how  any  method  of  statistical  correlation  can  improve  upon  the 
simple  treatment  shown  above;  and  it  is  equally  difficult  to 
imagine  a  value  for  even  the  single  test  averages :  e.g.,  what  can 
we  know  by  finding  that  the  average  initial  efficiency  in  pro- 
gressing from  A.  to  B.  is  86  minutes,  when  no  single  ability  or 
group  of  abilities  approached  that  measurement? 

It  seems  patent  that  results  from  great  numbers  of  reagents 
cannot  be  more  reliable,  when  different  kinds  of  work  are  mea- 
sured ;  this  sort  of  error  will  not  cancel  itself  out  by  multiplying 
it,  nor  will  the  'probable  error'  have  any  meaning  as  an  indica- 
tion of  the  reliability  of  the  measurement. 

Practically,  the  requisite  for  introspective  description  of  pro- 
cesses limits  the  number  of  reagents.  The  security  of  greater 
numbers  may  be  obtained  by  repetition  of  the  whole  experiment. 

The  requirement  that  the  test  shall  afford  a  reliable  measure- 
ment is  not  easily  met,  for  the  reason  that  it  must  be  arbitrarily 
decided  as  to  how  much  practice-effect  to  include.  The  usual 
preliminary  series  which  gives  an  opportunity  for  adaptation  to 
the  work  of  the  test  does  not  remove  the  difficulty;  practice- 


222  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

effect  continues  and  at  various  rates  with  different  reagents/^® 
especially  if  different  methods  of  work  are  employed.  In  almost 
any  case  a  single  test  score  is  bound  to  be  unreliable ;  in  some  of 
our  tests  in  the  Experiment  on  Attention  averages  of  five  series, 

"'  Otis  and  Davidson  (The  reliability  of  standard  scores  in  adding  ability. 
Ele.  School  Teacher,  1912,  13 :  91-105)  found  different  types  of  learning 
ability  among  202  8th-grade  children  who  were  given  25  tests  in  adding; 
amount  of  improvement,  moreover,  bore  no  constant  relation  to  initial  effi- 
ciency. Wells  (The  relation  of  practice  to  individual  differences.  Am.  Jr. 
Psych.,  1912,  23 :  75-88)  who  trained  10  adult  subjects  30  days  on  adding  and 
marking  out  zeros,  concluded  that  "A  superior  performance  at  the  beginning 
of  special  practice  is  not  necessarily,  nor  even  probably,  attained  at  the  sacri- 
fice of  prospects  for  further  improvement.  A  high  initial  efficiency  may  carry 
with  it  as  much  or  more  prospect  of  improvement  under  special  practice  than 
a  low  one.  .  .  .  Not  practice,  but  practiceability,  is  responsible  for  the  su- 
perior position  of  such  an  individual"  (p.  88)  ;  if  the  individual's  high 
efficiency  is  the  result  of  greater  practice,  his  position  may  be  near  the 
"physiological  limit"  or  end  of  his  practice-curve,  and  practice-effect  may  be 
expected  to  be  small ;  if  it  is  the  product  of  greater  ability  (native  endow- 
ment), his  position  is  nearer  the  beginning  of  his  practice-curve  and  practice- 
effect  may  be  expected  to  be  large  (p.  75). 

That  the  reagent  with  the  higher  initial  ability  improves  more  in  practice 
was  found  in  tests  in  tapping  by  Bolton  (Relation  of  motor  power  to  intelli- 
gence. Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  1903,  14:621),  in  discriminative  reaction  on  a  type- 
writer by  Culler  (Interference  and  adaptability.  Archives  of  Psych.,  1912, 
3:  No.  24,  p.  57),  in  marking  out  zeros  by  Wells  {op.  cit.  p.  79ff),  in  adding 
by  Wells  (op.  cit.)  and  Hahn  and  Thorndike  (Some  results  of  practice  in 
addition  under  school  conditions.  Jr.  Ed.  Psych.,  1914,  5:79),  and  in  multi- 
plication by  Thorndike  (Effect  of  practice  in  a  case  of  a  purely  intellectual 
function.     Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  1908,  I9:374ff). 

That  the  reagent  with  the  lower  initial  ability  improves  more  in  practice 
was  found  in  training  in  learning  non-sense  syllables  by  Miiller  und  Schumann 
(Experimentelle  Beitrage  zur  Untersuchung  des  Gedachtnisses.  Zeits.  f. 
Psych.,  1894,  6:328)  and  von  Sybel  (Ueber  das  Zusammenwirken  verschied- 
ener  Sinnesgebiete  bei  Gedachtnisleistungen.  Zeits.  f.  Psych.,  1909,  53:356), 
in  marking  out  letters  by  Binet  (Attention  et  Adaptation.  Annee  Psych., 
1899,  6:368),  in  free  associations  by  Wells  (Practice  effect  in  free  associa- 
tions. Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  1911,  22:2-3),  and  in  adding  by  Thorndike  (Practice 
in  the  case  of  addition.     Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  1910,  21:485). 

Hollingworth  (Individual  differences  before,  during,  and  after  practice. 
Psych.  Rev.,  1914.  21:1-8),  who  followed  Whitley  and  Wells  in  attacking 
the  problem  directly,  gave  175  repetitions  of  seven  tests  to  13  adult  reagents, 
and  calculated  the  coefficients  of  correlation  between  the  orders  of  abilities  in 
the  1st,  5th,  25th,  50th,  8oth  and  130th  trials  and  the  last  trial.     The  averages 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  223 

taken  on  two  clays,  were  unreliable.  The  averages  used  in  our 
Experiment  on  Sensible  Discrimination  were  much  more  reliable, 
and  they  involved  the  work  of  three  days,  about  forty-five 
minutes  each.  In  reaction,  discrimination,  and  tachistoscopic 
tests  it  should  probably  extend  to  at  least  100  experiments. 

The  number  of  tests  should  also  be  limited  on  account  of 
inter-test  practice-effect,  although  this  source  of  error  may  be 
partly  eliminated  by  arranging  the  series  composing  the  tests  in 
'double  fatigue  order'  ;^^°  successive  tests  may  be  made  equivalent 
in  difficulty  by  using  Miiller's  'cyclical  changes'  ("Zyklischen 
Wechsels").^" 

The  training  should  perhaps  be  longer  than  is  usual,  and  as 
rigorous  as  circumstances  will  permit,  say  six  months  for  such 
work  as  cannot  be  trained  to  maximal  efficiency  in  less  time. 

The  control   reagents  should  equal  the  trained   reagents   in 


of  these  coefficients  were  .41,  .61,  .73,  .77,  .85,  and  .92,  indicating  a  gradual 
approximation,  through  these  various  levels  of  practice,  to  the  final  order, 
and,  consequently,  the  insecurity  of  the  results  of  the  early  levels  as  indicative 
of  the  final  relative  capacities  of  the  individuals  tested.  In  adding  and  in 
cancellation  of  digits  the  coefficient  of  r  =  -(-  .75  was  not  reached  until  the 
25th  trial;  in  tapping,  the  130th  trial;  but  in  naming  colors  and  in  coordina- 
tion (aiming)  it  was  reached  by  the  5th  trial. 

An  indication  of  change  in  processes  during  practice,  which  had  the  effect 
of  diminishing  individual  differences,  is  to  be  found  in  the  coefficients  of 
correlation  between  tests  at  varying  stages  of  practice  published  by  Winch 
(Jr.  of  Philos.  Psych,  and  Sci.  Methods,  191 1,  8:377)  and  Hollingworth 
(Correlation  of  abilities  as  affected  by  practice.  Jr.  Ed.  Psych.,  1913,  4:  405ff)  ; 
Hollingworth  found  the  coefficients  (averaged  for  his  seven  tests  with  13 
observers)  for  the  ist,  5th,  25th,  80th,  and  205th  trials  to  be  .065,  .280,  .320, 
.390,  and  .490,  respectively. 

That  differences  in  rate  or  amount  of  improvement  in  practice  may  be 
dependent  upon  differences  in  mental  processes  is  shown  by  McMein  and 
Washburn  (Effect  of  mental  type  on  the  interference  of  motor  habits.  Am. 
Jr.  Psych.,  1909,  20:282ff)  who  found  that  reagents  who  used  visual  imagery 
freely  made  more  rapid  improvement  in  card-sorting,  and  overcame  interfer- 
ence, produced  by  turning  the  compartment-scheme  through  iSo°,  more  easily, 
than  the  other  reagents.  And  von  Sybel  (Zeits.  f.  Psych.,  53:356)  found  that 
the  practice-effect  was  greater  for  reagents  with  the  less  initial  facility  in 
method  of  learning. 

^■^  As  was  done  by  Fracker :  op.  cit.  p.  63. 

"^  Fid.  MiJller:    Zeits.  f.  Psych.,  1905,  39:116. 


224  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

number,  in  initial  efficiency,  and  in  facility  in  introspection,  or 
their  results  may  not  be  comparable  with  those  of  the  trained 
reagents.  If  these  conditions  are  met,  comparison,  both  quali- 
tative and  quantitative,  may  be  intelligently  made;  and  the 
simplest  mathematical  treatment  would  seem  the  least  objection- 
able, even  the  per  cent  form  of  expression  being  serviceable. ^^^ 
Finally,  two  more  criticisms  with  reference  to  the  interpreta- 
tion of  difference-scores,  are  important :  ( i )  An  exceptionally 
large  difference-score  is  a  symptom  of  radical  change  in  kind  of 
work  and  calls  for  individual  treatment;  (2)  A  small  difference- 
score  does  not  necessarily  mean  that  training-effect  is  absent; 
it  may  merely  be  the  resultant  of  positive  and  negative  factors  in 
that  effect.  In  either  case  introspective  description  of  processes 
must,  when  possible,  furnish  the  chief  grounds  for  interpretation. 

4.  Analysis  of  the  'Common  Factor' 


It  is  generally  agreed  that  'the  Ccmmon  Factor'  is  responsible 
for  the  general  effect  of  special  practice ;  but  as  to  what  it  is  or 
may  be,  there  is  difference  of  opinion.  It  is  interesting  to  note 
that  its  nature  is  growing  more  complex  as  experiment  and 
discussion  advance.  In  the  early  days  it  was  regarded  as  largely 
physiological  and  related  simply  and  immediately  to  the  data  of 
presentation,  or,  as  mental  habit,  related  definitely  to  the  method 
of  the  experiment;  in  marking  out  words,  for  example,  it  was 
said  to  consist  principally  in  eye-movement,  pen-manipulation, 
and  in  the  habit  of  looking  for  the  least  common  letter.     And 

'^The  chief  objection  to  the  per  cent  form  of  expression  involves  the 
presumption  of  a  direct  comparison  of  measurements  of  improvement  made 
by  reagents  who  differ  widely  in  initial  efficiency,  {vid.  Whitley's  hypothetical 
case  showing  how  varying  methods  of  portraying  practice-effect  lead  to  vary- 
ing conclusions,  op.  cit.  100-105)  or  who  differ  widely  in  their  positions  with 
reference  to  the  end  of  their  practice-curves  (Wells :  Am.  Jr.  Psych., 
23:82-85).  This  objection  appears  to  be  removed  if,  upon  the  grounds  of 
qualitative  difference  in  work,  capacities  differing  widely  in  initial  status  are 
declared  to  be  not  directly  comparable,  and  if,  upon  grounds  of  individual 
variation  in  the  form  of  practice-curves  or  of  multiple  types  of  practice- 
curves,  the  individual's  position  on  the  practice-curve  cannot  be  determined 
and,  consequently,  no  remedy  is  apparent. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  225 

'general  effect'  was  said  to  decrease  directly  with  decrease  in 
similarity  of  matter  and  method  between  the  two  tests. ^"*^ 

More  recently,  the  'Common  Factor'  has  been  found  to  be 
made  up  of  subjective  factors,  not  altogether,  but  largely,  inde- 
pendent of  the  matter  and  method  of  the  tests  (admirably  shown 
by  individual  variation),  and  to  be  anything  but  simple,  although 
the  illustrations  used  in  discussion  are  still  apt  to  give  it  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  simplicity  and  definiteness  which  the  authors  do 
not  really  intend. ^"*^ 

If  one  set  of  processes  consists  of  elements  a,h,c,d,c,  and  an- 
other of  c,f,g,h,i,  training  in  the  one  is  said  to  improve  the  other 
through  the  common  factor  e;  the  effect  is  greater  in  case  the 
latter  set  should  consist  of  c,d,e,f,g.  Fracker^'*^  has  suggested 
the  term  'Transference'  for  this  kind  of  influence,  but  he  pro- 
vides for  another  kind  of  'general  effect'  which  he  calls  'Spread 
of  Training,'  which  is  found  when  the  second  set  of  processes 
consists  of  f,g,h,i,j,  none  of  the  elements  of  which  is  common 
with  any  of  the  first  set  but  some  of  which  are  'consciously'  or 
'subconsciously'  connected  with  some  of  the  latter  in  the  mind  of 
the  reagent.^^*^  And  Sleight^^'^  claims  that  to  be  effective  the 
'common  factor'  need  not  be  recognized  by  the  reagent  as  com- 
mon ;  and  that  it  may  not  be  effective  at  all  because  it  is  so  firmly 
bound  up  with  its  associates  that  it  cannot  be  lifted  out  and  used 
where  its  associates  are  not  also  common. 

"^  Vid.  Thorndike  and  Woodworth,  1901,  op.  cit. 

^**Vid.  Fracker,  1908,  op.  cit.  Sleight,   191 1,  op.  cit. 

"'Fracker,  op.  cit.  85. 

"'The  writer  believes  that  Fracker  has  performed  a  real  service  in  pointing 
out  those  distinctions  and  in  offering  apt  technical  terms  for  them;  and  he  has 
adopted  the  terms  in  the  preceding  pages,  but  has  thought  best  to  characterize 
them  in  a  different  way,  suggested  by  the  two  widely  different  classes  of  ele- 
ments that  contribute  to  improvement  in  training :  The  sudden  rise  of  the 
curve  in  the  beginning  stages  is  due  largely  to  'adaptive'  changes  in  which 
elements  of  former  experience  have  been  'transferred'  bodily  to  the  new 
work ;  the  later,  more  gradual,  rise,  broken  by  plateaus,  is  due  to  a  more 
orderly  development  which  was  called  "practice  effect  proper."  The  influence 
of  this  practice-effect,  apart  from  transference,  was  termed  "spread  of  train- 
ing (see  p.  230). 

"'  Sleight,  op.  cit.  pp.  44of. 


226  JOHN  EDGAR  CO  OVER 

To  locate  and  define  the  'common  factor,'  a  thorough  analysis 
of  a  set  of  processes  into  its  elements  is  necessary;  and  this  is 
exceedingly  difficult  because  introspections,  even  when  expertly 
made,  are  scarcely  ever  complete  descriptions  and  reveal  only 
the  elements  selected  from  the  content  of  consciousness  which 
enjoy  a  considerable  degree  of  clearness.  No  doubt  this  in- 
completeness tends  to  a  portrayal  of  the  elements  as  discrete 
units  connected  in  simple  mechanical  relations  somewhat  con- 
gruent with  the  old  associational  psychology.  Admittedly  in- 
complete analysis,  however,  yet  shows,  when  it  is  at  its  best, 
that  the  elements  found  are  not  of  the  same  order  and  are  not 
simply  related. 

a.  Factors  involved  in  one  experiment 

The  difficulty  of  defining  the  common  factor  and  of  stating 
the  laws  under  which  it  operates,  may  be  best  apprehended,  per- 
haps, by  following  a  single  experiment  through  its  three  or 
more  parts  in  an  effort  to  locate  some  of  the  elements  of  the 
processes  which  may  serve  as  the  'Common  Factor' : 

( 1 )  The  first  period,  between  the  'ready'  signal  and  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  stimulus,  is  characterized  by  a  set  of  conscious- 
ness which  includes  certain  predispositions  or  tendencies  which 
affect  the  course  of  the  processes  to  follow.  It  includes  an  emo- 
tional attitude  toward  the  experiment  and  a  corresponding  'will 
to  succeed';  definite  ideals  of  efficiency  to  be  attained;  ideas  of 
method  to  be  used.  This  'anlage'  comes  to  every  experiment  as 
an  adaptation  to  a  more  or  less  novel  situation,  and  is  generalized 
therefore  from  past  experience,  is  modified  in  recurring  experi- 
ments on  the  basis  of  the  resultant  experiences  from  the  fore- 
going; and  engages  at  once  the  selective  function  of  attention  in 
the  adaptation,  and  the  function  of  control  in  carrying  out  the 
initial  steps  of  the  purpose,  such  as  the  readiness  for  a  certain 
direction  and  distribution  of  the  attention,  and  renewal  of  defi- 
nite imagery  which  is  to  be  used  in  ready  recognition  or  recep- 
tion of  the  material. 

(2)  The  period  of  dealing  with  the  stimulus  may  be  either 
short  or  long,     (a)   If  short,  as  in  simple  reaction,  sensible  dis- 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  227 

crimination,  or  tachistoscopic  work,  quickness  of  adaptation  or 
alertness  of  the  attention,  as  well  as  degree  of  concentration,  is 
a  condition  of  good  performance,  since  it  affects  directly  sensi- 
tivity for  the  stimulus.  The  direction  and  distribution  of  the 
attention  prepared  for  are  carried  out;  part-processes  are  co- 
ordinated, external  and  internal  distractions  are  inhibited,  un- 
essential imagery  is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  (b)  If  long,  as  in 
repeated  reactions  (card-sorting,  typewriter-reaction,  marking 
out  a's),  or  in  memorizing,  there  are  in  addition  to  the  fore- 
going, sustained  attention,  more  complicated  part-processes, 
greater  use  of  categories  of  classification,  more  development  of 
method  in  process,  more  use  of  individual  forms  of  imagery. 
In  any  case  the  process  varies  more  with  the  form  (in  reaction, 
or  memorizing)  than  with  the  material  of  the  experiment. 

(3)  In  tachistoscopic  or  memory  work  the  period  between  the 
stimulus  and  recording  may  be  used  chiefly  to  make  imagery 
definite  for  recording  and  may  also  serve  for  'maturing'  content 
into  the  field  of  clearness.  In  sensible  discrimination  it  may 
serve  for  comparison  of  images.  The  control  of  the  attention  is 
therefore  important,  else  the  vague  imagery  will  not  be  so  di- 
rectly entertained,  and  distraction  will  cause  a  loss  of  some  of 
the  clear  imagery.  Coordination  of  retaining  and  defining  proc- 
esses is  demanded. 

(4)  In  the  period  of  recording,  coordination  of  the  retentive 
and  reproductive  processes  call  for  economic  distribution  of  the 
attention. 

A  single  experiment  thus  contains  many  factors  of  a  formal 
nature  which  cannot  be  treated  as  coordinate  elements.^'*^ 

b.  Practice-effect  upon  these  factors 

Analyses  of  processes  in  training  and  tests  in  the  preceding 
experiments  show  in  what  way  these  factors  are  changed  through 
training : 

( I )   The  attitude  becomes  optimal  in  tone,  the  'will  to  suc- 

"*And  consequently  cannot  be  illustrated  by  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  etc.,  as  though 
simply  and  mechanically  related  either  with  each  other  or  with  'content' 
elements. 


228  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

ceed'  is  firmer,  the  essential  processes  can  be  more  definitely  pre- 
pared for  in  the  set  of  attention,  strong  expectation  of  particular 
content  drops  away. 

(2)  (a)  Where  the  period  of  dealing  with  the  stimulus  is 
short,  as  in  reaction  and  sensible  discrimination,  intensity  and  di- 
rection of  attention  comes  under  better  control,  resulting  in 
greater  sensitivity  for  the  stimulus,  greater  preparedness  for 
reaction,  or  higher  discriminability,  and  closer  coordination  of 
sensation  and  movement  or  of  discrimination  and  report.  Ad- 
ventitious imagery  drops  away,  (b)  Where  the  period  is  long 
and  the  processes  are  successive  and  complex,  as  in  reaction  with 
discrimination  and  choice  (card-sorting,  typewriter-reaction) 
there  is  first  an  elaboration  of  method  involving  analysis  and 
classification  of  the  stimuli  and  synthesis  of  like  stimuli  and  simi- 
lar relations  into  a  scheme  which  mediates  between  stimulus  and 
reaction.  Improvement  here  consists  in  adaptability  in  forming 
an  adequate  scheme,  and  in  an  economic  distribution  of  the  atten- 
tion to  the  various  part-processes  it  involves.  Then  comes  the 
dropping  away  of  retarding  factors,  the  stimulus  becomes  co- 
ordinated with  its  reaction,  and  improvement  here  consists  in 
sustained  attention  and  in  a  distribution  of  attention  which  equal- 
izes readiness  for  all  reactions;  kinaesthetic  accompaniments  of 
recognition  (as  pronouncing,  or  movement  of  some  part  of  the 
body)  and  of  initiating  the  reaction,  and  those  grosser  bodily 
movements,  tensions,  and  strains,  accompanying  effort,  drop 
away. 

In  memorizing  cards  of  exposed  letters,  figures,  or  symbols, 
methods  of  analyzing,  classifying,  and  grouping,  and  of  co- 
ordinating part-processes  involving  disparate  imagery  and  dif- 
ferent grades  of  clearness,  grow  up;  systems  of  representative 
imagery  (associations)  develop;  complexity  of  content  increases 
from  a  two-fold  to  a  four-fold  system  of  imagery,  and  from  a 
two-level  to  an  eight-level  grade  of  clearness. 

Improvement  in  this  part  of  the  experiment  involves  factors 
which  are  common  to  all  processes  of  learning,  and  also  factors 
which  are  specific  to  the  material  or  the  form  of  the  experiment. 
But  the  relative  importance  of  these  two  classes  of  factors  may 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  229 

be  illustrated  from  reaction  with  discrimination  and  choice.  In 
no  exercise,  probably,  are  the  special  factors  more  important. 
The  process  of  forming  coordinations  between  specific  stimuli 
and  specific  reactions  is  the  end  attained  by  the  training.  Yet 
those  specific  coordinations  constitute  the  least  part  of  the  train- 
ing effect;  power  of  forming  coordinations  between  other  specific 
stimuli  and  other  specific  reactions  has  been  so  much  increased 
that  learning  new  systems  is  greatly  facilitated.^^"  Memorizing 
furnishes  another  illustration :  Methods  of  apperceiving  and  rep- 
resenting the  material  are  more  permanent  than  the  material 
learned,  and  have  a  wider  application.^^^ 

(3)  In  the  period  of  fixing  the  imagery  and  of  'maturing' 
vague  imagery  into  impressions  definite  enough  for  cognition, 
improvement  consists  in  a  peculiarly  delicate  control  of  attention 
in  respect  to  direction,  to  distribution,  and  to  degree;  and  this 
experience  once  realized  probably  makes  it  possible  to  entertain 
any  kind  of  imagery  in  the  same  way.  (It  resembles  in  nature 
the  hearing  out  of  an  'upper  partial'  from  the  complex  clang  of 
a  vibrating  string,  in  that  stimulation  directs  the  attention;  but 
it  is  not  so  simple  a  process.)  Improvement  through  training 
has  the  effect  of  increasing  sensitivity  to  central  excitations,  of 
increasing  both  the  liability  and  the  fidelity  of  reproduction. 

(4)  Improvement  in  coordinating  the  retaining,  reproductive, 
and  recording  processes  effects  an  economic  distribution  of  at- 
tention which  results  in  a  singular  self-possession  and  poise,  a 
satisfying  feeling  of  fitness  for  the  task.  Economic  distribution 
of  the  attention  to  such  complex  processes  is  a  matter  more  of 
form  than  of  content,  for  both  stimuli  and  form  of  expression 
may  change  yet  that  complicated  formal  process  is  to  some  ex- 
tent available.  ^^^ 

This  statement  has  necessarily  been  made  in  general  terms  and 
has  emphasized  the  more  formal  elements  which  are  fitted  to 
fill  the  office  of  the  'Common  Factor.'    The  more  concrete,  and 

'**Firf.  Bair,  {op.  cit.)  and  Liddle  {of.  cit.). 

^Cf.  Fracker  {op.  cit.  91),  and  Gamble  {op.  cit.  97,  149). 

*"C/.  Fracker  {op.  cit.  95). 


230  JOHN  EDGAR  COOVER 

presumably  more  specific  elements,  dependent  upon  the  particular 
work  of  the  task,  have  been  abundantly  illustrated  in  the  discus- 
sions of  test  and  training  results.  The  more  formal  elements 
appear  at  this  juncture  to  need  emphasis  since  they  are  so  likely 
to  be  overlooked,  especially  when  the  analysis  is  expected  to  lead 
to  simple  elements  mechanically  related. 

c.  'Spread  of  Training 

When  the  more  orderly  changes  in  processes  effected  by  prac- 
tice in  one  task  are  carried  over  to  another  we  have  what  the 
writer  thinks  is  best  described  as  a  'Spread  of  Training.'  This 
occurred  more  conspicuously  in  the  Experiment  on  Marking  out 
Words,  the  Experiment  on  Sensible  Discrimination,  and  the  Ex- 
periment on  Reproduction.  The  'Common  Factor'  appears  to 
be  formal  and  to  be  relatively  detached  from  the  data  of  presen- 
tation, and,  in  the  last  experiment,  from  method.  No  systems 
of  imagery  were  carried  over.  The  practice-effect  consisted  in 
stripping  the  essential  process  of  unessential  factors,  in  facility 
in  developing  automatic  coordinations,  in  establishing  habits  of 
higher  order,  in  dealing  more  effectively  with  vague  imagery, 
etc.  This  kind  of  general  effect  seems  to  rest  more  directly  upon 
modes  of  mental  processes  than  upon  the  material  of  experience, 
and  seems  capable  of  description  largely  in  terms  of  emotional 
and  volitional  attitudes  and  of  the  control  of  attention. 

d.  'Transference' 

The  term  'Transference'  seems  particularly  applicable  to  the 
carrying  over,  from  one  task  to  another,  of  the  material  of  ex- 
perience. It  takes  place  typically  in  the  'adaptation'  to  a  novel 
exercise,  and  in  the  application  of  physiological  processes  and 
systems  of  imagery  in  an  exercise  similar  to  the  exercise  in 
which  they  were  developed. 

These  two  kinds  of  general  effect  of  special  practice  bear  to 
each  other  a  relation  analogous  to  form  and  matter  in  logic,  and, 
although  inseparable,  should  be  discriminated  for  the  purpose 
of  prohibiting  the  limit  of  search  for  the  'Common  Factor'  to  the 
case  of  'Transference'  alone.     Enumeration  of  the  elements  of 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  231 

the  material  of  experience  will  then  not  exhaust  the  processes  in 
an  exercise,  to  be  considered  for  the  purpose  of  locating  the 
'Common  Factor.'  In  preceding  pages  when  the  causes  of  gen- 
eral effect  of  practice  have  been  discussed,  in  the  review  of  the 
results  of  experimentation  conducted  by  others,^''^  and  by  our- 
selves,^^^  some  elements  properly  falling  under  the  head  of 
'Spread  of  Training'  were  always  included  in  the  consideration. 
If  the  reader  should  glance  over  the  'Summary'  (pp.  3 iff)  of 
the  evidence  for  relationship  between  mental  processes,  from  the 
literature,  he  will  note  that  the  eighteen  numbered  cases  all  in- 
volve 'Spread  of  Training,'  all  but  eight  involve  it  almost  ex- 
clusively, and  only  two  involve  a  large  share  of  'Transference.' 

e.  Both  kinds  of  General  Effect  selected  from  former  experience 

It  has  already  been  pointed  out^^^  that  elements  of  former  ex- 
perience contribute  to  the  work  of  a  test.  This  is  applicable  to 
both  kinds  of  general  effect,  as  may  be  seen  by  inspecting  the 
analyses  of  processes  in  the  last  two  experiments. 

To  illustrate,  with  reference  to  'Spread  of  Training'  the 
reagent  comes  to  the  experiment  with  emotional  factors,  voli- 
tional attitudes,  and  modes  of  mental  processes  already  estab- 
lished:  His  work  in  tachistoscopic  tests  and  in  learning  12- 
letter-rectangles  is  influenced  by  favorite  letters,  preference  given 
to  right  or  left  position,  distribution  of  attention,  etc.,  in  dis- 
crimination tests,  by  concern  for  an  equitable  distribution  of 
'greater'  and  'less'  judgments  and  by  other  factors  leading  to 
constant  errors  ;^^^  he  gives  preference  to  imagery  of  one  par- 
ticular sense-mode,  as  is  illustrated  by  his  representative  imagery 
in  tests  in  discrimination,  and  in  memorizing,  although  he  may 
vary  this  mode  upon  occasion,  for  varying  content  or  method  ;^^'' 
he  comes  to  tests  in  learning  12-letter-rectangles,  and  in  memor- 

"*  Pp.    19,   22f,    23f,    2-/. 

'"Pp.  36ff,  4iff,  46ff,  6iff,  173,  2i7ff. 

'"Pp.  173,  i8of. 

^^Cf.  F.  Angell's  Review  of  "Zur  Analyze  der  Unterschiedsemptiiidlichkeit" 
von  Martin  u.  Miiller,  in  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  1900,  11  :  266-7. 

"*  Cf.  Segal,  J :  Ueber  den  Reproductionstypus  und  das  Reproduzieren  von 
vorstellungen.     Arch.  f.d.  ges.     Psychol.,  1908,  12:124-236. 


232  JOHN  EDGAR  CO  OVER 

izing,  with  tendencies  designed  to  facilitate  a  particular  method 
of  coordinating  imagery  of  different  modes,  and  of  placing  re- 
liance mainly  upon  methods  of  rote  learning  or  of  classification 
and  grouping,  and  to  tests  in  compound  reaction  and  in  memor- 
izing visual  symbols  with  principles  of  classification;  etc. 

To  illustrate  with  reference  to  'Transference,'  the  reagent  ap- 
plies elements  of  the  material  of  former  experience,  especially  in 
the  forms  of  particular  imagery  and  systems  of  imagery.  To  the 
former  belong  the  conventional  things  by  which  visual  symbols 
are  cognized  and  named  for  memorizing;  groups  of  letters  from 
common  phrases  and  names,  cattle-brands,  wheat-sack  initials, 
names  from  Biblical  and  classical  literature,  etc.  used  in  learning 
i2-letter-rectangles;  the  various  representative  visual  and  kinaes- 
thetic  imagery  in  discrimination  of  sound,  as  of  flashing  light, 
falling  bodies,  or  raising  the  toes  for  louder  sound ;  etc.  To  the 
latter  belong  the  musical  staff  for  memorizing  'note'  forms, 
map  directions  for  cognizing  symbols  with  radii  variously 
turned,  series  of  steps  for  memorizing  sound  intensities,  mathe- 
matical relations  for  grouping  numerals,  logical  schemes  for 
classification  of  stimuli  in  compound  reaction ;  etc. 

This  application  of  the  elements  of  former  experience  is  fa- 
miliar to  every  one  who  has  considered  at  all  critically  the  process 
of  learning.  But  it  should  perhaps  be  pointed  out  that  in  the  ap- 
plication the  former  elements  are  not  merely  picked  up  as  stable 
units  and  mechanically  inserted  in  a  new  process.  The  elements 
come  with  a  certain  mutation  determined  by  the  novelty  of  the 
situation,  and  their  application  involves  a  degree  of  invention. 
The  elements  of  consciousness  do  not  appear  to  behave  in  the 
manner  of  reflex-action,  and  it  does  not  seem  possible  to  get  a 
purely  'specific'  effect  of  practice  when  the  practice  is  a  conscious 
process.  All  elements  may  be  the  'Common  Factor' ;  all  effects 
of  conscious  practice  are  to  some  extent  'general  effects.' 

f .  Provisional  ^classification  of  Common  Factors 

In  view  of  the  complexity  of  the  situation  it  is  hazardous  to 
attempt  a  complete  classification  of  the  'Common  Factors,'  yet 
the  writer  feels  inclined  to  offer  the  following  provisional  list : 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  233 

Common  Factors 
I.  Objective. 

1.  Likeness  of  material. 

2.  Likeness  of  form. 
IL  Subjective. 

A.  Form  of  Experience. 

1.  Aufgabe  (interpretation  of  instructions). 

2.  Attitude   (emotional,  volitional). 

3.  Ideals  (controlling  concepts), 

4.  Purpose  (definition  of  volitional  attitude). 

5.  Intellectual  processes. 

a.  Elaboration  of  method. 

b.  Short-circuiting  of  processes. 

c.  Higher  order  of  control. 

d.  Elimination  of  accompaniments  of 

( 1 )  Discrimination, 

(2)  Cognition, 

(3)  Movement,  ; 

(4)  Reproduction, 

e.  Growth  in  simplicity  or  complexity  of  imagery. 

f.  Coordination  of  part-processes. 

6.  Control  of  attention. 

a.  In  degree, 

b.  In  direction, 

c.  In  distribution, 

d.  In  quickness  of  adaptation, 

e.  In  duration  of  concentration. 

B.  Material  of  Experience. 

1.  Simple  imagery    (Visual,   auditory,   kinaesthetic,   tac- 

tual, etc.)  . 

a.  Direct, 

b.  Associative, 

(i)   In  the   same  sense-mode, 
(2)   In  different  sense-mode. 

2.  Compound  imagery  (Of  the  above). 

a.  Direct. 

b.  Associative. 

3.  Complex    imagery.      (Spatial,    temporal,    causal,    his- 

trionic). 

a.  Direct. 

b.  Associative. 

4.  Systems  of  Imagery   (Representative  schemes,  mne- 

monic devices). 


III.  CONCLUSION 


1,  Evidence  from  the  literature  of  experimental  psychology- 
indicates  a  functional  relationship  between  various  mental  proc- 
esses. This  relationship  is  sometimes  positive,  sometimes  nega- 
tive. Specially  designed  experiments  show  that  'specific'  prac- 
tice is  never  wholly  'general'  in  its  effects ;  is  often  largely  'gen- 
eral,' and  is  probably  always  somewhat  'general.'  Under  the 
experimental  conditions,  the  'general'  effect  usually  ranged,  in 
amount,  from  one-fourth  to  three-fourths  of  the  gain  made  in 
the  specific  practice  (znd.  Summary,  pp.  31ft").- 

2.  Results  of  the  repeated  experiments  of  (a)  Marking  Out 
Words,  and  (b)  Estimating  Weights,  support  the  evidence  for 
'general'  effect  of  'specific'  practice,  and  indicate  through  intro- 
spective analysis,  what  change  in  the  practice  is  responsible  for 
the  'general'  effect. 

a.  The  training  on  Marking  out  Words,  on  printed  pages,  con- 
taining both  letters  e  and  s,  increased  efficiency  by  reducing  the 
recognition  of  words  as  containing  e  and  .?  to  its  essential  process, 
through  relieving  it  of  unnecessary  and  retarding  accompani- 
ments, chiefly  kinaesthetic,  motor,  and  auditory.  This  factor  in 
the  training-effect  was  responsible  for  the  marked  increase  in 
efficiency  shown  in  the  tests  on  marking  out  words  containing 
other  pairs  of  letters,  on  printed  pages  and  on  manuscript  sheets. 
Some  'specific'  effects  of  practice  (such  as  word-reaction)  which 
would  not  contribute  to  'general'  effect,  or,  if  so,  only  in  a  nega- 
tive form,  were  also  found;  but  the  principal  factor  of  improve- 
ment in  the  practice  was  the  main  factor  of  improvement  in  the 
tests, — a  general  effect  (34-39). 

b.  The  training  on  Estimating  Weights  resulted  in  building 

^  The  statements  under  this  head  will  be  found  in  more  amplified  form 
in  the  Conclusions  of  the  various  experiments,  which  may  be  located  by  refer- 
ence to  the  Table  of  Contents. 

'The  page  numbers  in  parenthesis  refer  to  material  upon  which  the  state- 
-ments  are  based,  including  conclusions  to  experiments. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  235 

up  a  definite  idea  of  the  field  represented  by  the  training  weights 
(40-120  grams),  or  in  deepening  impressions  of  the  weights  at 
the  upper  and  lower  limits  of  this  field ;  and  these  ideas  of  value 
improved  the  capacity  for  estimating  weights  differing  in  kind, 
both  within  the  field  of  training  and  above  it.  Both  reagents 
showed  more  improvement  in  tests  on  objects  dissimilar  to  the 
training-weights,  but  within  the  field,  than  they  made  in  training ; 
and  one  reagent  made  his  greatest  gain  in  the  test  on  objects 
above  the  field.  These  anomalous  results,  together  with  the  in- 
trospective evidence  of  the  complexity  of  the  estimating  process, 
suggest  that  simpler  processes  should  be  chosen  for  measuring 
and  analyzing  'general'  practice-effect  (pp.  39-42). 

3.  The  two  experiments,  (a)  Sensible  Discrimination,  and 
(b)  Reaction  with  Discrimination  and  Choice,  designed  to  de- 
termine whether  there  is  'general'  effect  of  'special'  practice  when 
the  processes  involved  are  as  simple  as  possible,  and  when  the 
tests  differ  from  the  training  (a)  in  sense-mode  of  reception  of 
the  stimuli,  or  (b)  in  the  form  of  the  stimuli  and  their  motor- 
response,  but  when  the  tests  and  training  involved  the  same  kind 
of  mental  activity,  contribute  results  indicative  of  the  real  com- 
plexity of  the  relatively  simple  processes,  and  of  the  'general' 
nature  of  practice-effect. 

a.  Training  in  Sensible  Discrimination  of  intensities  of  Sound 
resulted  in  improvement  in  efficiency  through  divesting  the  dis- 
criminating-process of  its  unessential  and  complicating  factors 
consisting  in  irrelevant  or  fantastic  imagery,  indirect  sets  of  at- 
tention, vascillating  attention,  expectation,  etc.,  all  of  which 
render  judgment  illusionable,  and  this  improvement  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  tests  in  sensible  discrimination  of  shades  of  gray 

(pp.  42-50)- 

b.  The  training  in  sorting  cards  bearing  distinctive  colors  into 

a  cabinet  with  six  compartments  increased  efficiency  in  Reaction 
with  Discrimination  and  Choice,  which  was  transferred  to  reac- 
tion to  letters  on  a  typewriter,  (a)  noticeably  in  regularity  with 
two  reagents  for  whom  the  latter  had  become  automatic  before  the 
training  in  card-sorting  was  begun,  and  (b)  markedly  in  speed 


236  JOHN  EDGAR  CO  OVER 

with  two  reagents  for  whom  the  latter  was  in  course  of  practice. 
The  practice-effect  responsible  for  the  improvement  in  the  card- 
sorting  and  for  the  improvement  transferred  to  the  typewriter- 
reaction  was  ( I )  the  habit  of  stripping  the  essential  process  of  its 
adventitious  accessories,  consisting  chiefly  in  (a)  kinaesthetic  and 
verbal  elements  accompanying  and  retarding  the  recognition  of 
the  stimulus,  (b)  mnemonic  schemes  which  served  the  purpose  of 
building  up  coordinations  between  stimulus  and  reaction,  (c)  false 
motions,  and  (d)  bodily  strain,  and  (2)  such  control  of  the  atten- 
tion (a)  that  the  various  possible  reactions  were  about  equally 
prepared  for  and  (b)  that  the  series  of  continuous  reactions  were 
not  so  frequently  broken  by  balks  due  to  distraction  (pp.  50-64). 

4.  Disagreement  in  the  results  of  investigations  as  to  the  ex- 
tent of  the  general  effect  of  special  practice,  in  hypotheses  pro- 
posed for  the  causes  of  the  transference  of  practice-effect,  and 
the  frequency  of  cases  of  an  anomalous  character  which  defy  any 
consistent  hypothesis,  are  probably  due  to  differences  in  technical 
procedure  in  experimentation,  to  differences  in  kind  and  length 
of  training  and  in  the  relation  of  training  to  tests,  and  to  dif- 
ferences in  statistical  treatment  of  results.  They  call  for  more 
qualitative  investigation  to  the  end  of  determining  more  precisely 
how  training  affects  the  processes  engaged  in  the  training,  how 
training-effect  affects  the  test-capacities,  and  how  training-effect, 
both  direct  and  'general,'  may  be  properly  expressed  in  quanti- 
tative terms.  A  study  of  anomalous  cases  suggests  the  import- 
ance of  determining  (a)  the  extent  of  variability  in  processes, 
both  with  a  single  reagent  and  between  different  reagents  who 
set  themselves  to  the  same  objective  task,  (b)  the  causes  of  this 
variability,  and  (c)  its  effect  upon  the  scores  (pp.  64-69). 

5.  The  Experiment  on  Attention,  which  provided  a  qualitative 
study  of  the  kind,  extent,  and  causes  of  variability  in  processes 
engaged  by  a  single  reagent  in  a  single  test  and  in  a  range  of 
tests,  and  of  variability  between  processes  engaged  by  different 
reagents  in  identical  tests,  yielded  results  which  show: 

a.  That  it  is  the  rule  for  the  individual  reagent  to  vary  his 
processes  while  at  work  on  a  single  test  and  often  to  change 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  237 

radically,  in  the  final  test,  the  methods  of  work  employed  in  the 
first. 

b.  That  the  causes  of  this  variability,  beyond  general  condi- 
tions of  health,  interest,  etc.,  and  incidental  occurrences,  such  as 
winking  at  the  moment  of  the  presentation  of  the  stimuli,  and 
accidents  in  manipulation  of  a  key,  etc.,  were  of  a  fairly  specific 
nature  varying  in  accordance  with  the  nature  of  the  work  of  the 
test,  such  as  voluntary  or  undesigned  shifts  of  the  attention  to 
various  elements  of  the  processes  engaged,  changes  in  the  extent 
of  the  distribution  of  the  attention  over  part-processes  and  their 
coordination,  the  constructing  of  more  adequate  methods,  and 
the  practice-effect  of  dropping  out  of  the  process  unessential 
factors,  in  heightening  sensitivity,  discrimination,  reproduction, 
habituation  to  distraction,  and  in  building  up  habits  of  higher 
order. 

c.  That  in  almost  every  test  individual  reagents  differ  from 
each  other,  often  greatly,  in  the  way  in  which  they  performed 
the  work  of  the  test. 

d.  That  they  differ  in  the  'aufgabe,'  or  their  understanding  of 
the  instructions  for  the  test,  in  their  general  experience  from 
which  elements  are  selected,  by  way  of  adaptation,  to  begin  work, 
in  the  order  and  degree  of  the  changes  in  processes  due  to  the 
variability  in  the  single  reagent's  work  noticed  in  (b)  above 
(pp.  64-184,  particularly  167-173). 

6.  The  training  results  of  this  experiment  brought  into  clear 
relief  the  fact  that  practice-effect  itself  involves  changes  in  pro- 
cesses :  At  the  beginning  of  training  on  Test  1 7,  only  letters  that 
had  been  clearly  seen  were  recorded ;  at  the  end,  letters  were  cor- 
rectly recorded  that  had  not  been  "seen,"  but  that  'matured'  from 
the  'fringe'  content  of  consciousness;  the  conquest  of  the  'fringe' 
content  was  a  practice-effect  that  extended  the  area  of  distinct 
perception  whilst  increasing  efficiency  on  its  own  account.  At 
the  beginning  of  training  on  Test  13,  only  letters  the  visual  im- 
pression of  which  was  converted  into  kinaesthetic-auditory  (ver- 
bal) imagery  were  recorded;  at  the  end,  letters  were  recorded 
from  four  distinct  kinds  of  imagery;  at  the  beginning,  the  process 
was  a  simple  'rote'  process ;  at  the  end,  it  was  a  complex  process 


238  JOHN  EDGAR  CO  OVER 

involving  coordination  of  many  part-processes.  The  conception 
that  repetition  in  the  learning-process  increases  efficiency  simi- 
larly to  repetition  of  a  skilled  movement  in  fixing  a  habit  is  an 
absurdity  against  which  the  fact  of  the  increasing  keenness  of 
consciousness  accompanying  the  progress  of  the  former  ought 
to  have  been  sufficient  warning.  Repetition  in  learning  changes 
the  process  (pp.  173-176). 

7.  Altho  the  series  of  tests  proved  inadequate  as  a  measure  of 
attention,  there  was  some  quantitative  indication  of  a  practice- 
effect  upon  certain  forms  of  attention  (or  attentive  forms  of 
consciousness)  that  were  of  general  application:  (i)  The  con- 
trol of  attention  to  seize  the  stimuli  of  the  moment;  (2)  equit- 
able distribution  of  the  attenion  over  the  various  part-processes, 
leading  to  coordination  of  disparate  imagery,  of  processes  of  re- 
tention and  reproduction,  or  of  imagery  and  movement;  (3)  sus- 
tained application,  involving  inhibition  to  external  and  internal 
distraction;  (4)  an  intensity  of  application,  effective  in  lowering 
thresholds  of  sensation  and  reproduction,  and  in  fusing  co- 
ordinations (pp.  178-180). 

8.  There  was  ample  introspective  evidence  for  general  effect  of 
special  practice,  both  negative  and  positive.  Not  only  were 
methods  of  work,  forms  of  processes,  and  systems  of  imagery, 
transferred  from  one  kind  of  work  to  another,  but  in  the  adapta- 
tion to  the  novel  work  of  the  tests  elements  of  former  experience 
were  selected  and  applied,  which  when  acquired  must  always 
have  been  'specific'  and  as  applied  are  always  'general'  (pp.  180- 
181). 

9.  The  Experiment  on  Reproduction  supplemented  the  preced- 
ing experiment  in  illustrating  the  great  variability  in  processes 
engaged  in  a  single  test,  locating  the  variability  in  each  successive 
'moment'  of  the  single  test,  and  in  offering  new  evidence,  both 
quantitative  and  qualitative,  for  the  positive  and  negative  general 
effect  of  special  practice,  when  the  tests  and  training  differed  so 
greatly  in  both  material  and  method  as  to  exclude  a  'transference' 
of  the  elements  of  experience  (184-219). 

10.  The  training  on  discrimination  of  sound  did  not  result  in 
improvement  in  efficiency  with  the  training  material.     But,  ac- 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  239 

cording  to  introspective  evidence,  it  effected  changes  in  the 
processes  employed.  Quantitative  analysis  showed  that  the 
practice-effect  of  the  evident  exercise  of  retention  and  reproduc- 
tion of  auditory  and  other  imagery  'spread'  to  the  tachistoscopic 
test  of  Recognition  or  Choice  of  One  of  Two  Letters,  and  to  the 
test  on  the  Complete  Learning  of  series  of  visual  symbols,  both 
of  which  involved  retention  and  reproduction  of  imagery  (pp. 
184-219).  Retrogression  in  efficiency  in  the  course  of  practice, 
and  failure  to  apply  methods  developed  in  training  to  material 
slightly  different,  etc^  indicate  a  negative  special  effect  of  special 
practice,  which  should  be  taken  into  account  when  testing  for 
general  effect.  The  retrogressive  effect  shows  itself  in  negative 
general  effect  in  tests  similar  to  the  training,  and  is  not  incon- 
sistent with  positive  general  effect  in  tests  less  similar  to  the 
training  (p.  219). 

11.  Data  from  the  latter  two  experiments  indicate  the  im- 
portant bearing  which  variability  in  processes  has  upon  the  quan- 
titative treatment  of  results  (pp.  167-176,  181 -184).  Certain 
precautions  need  to  be  taken  in  order  that  the  results  of  the  test- 
training-test  type  of  experiment  may  not  be  misleading  (pp.  219- 
224).  It  would  seem  that  purely  quantitative  results  are 
worthless. 

12.  Introspective  description  of  the  processes  involved  in  the 
successive  'moments'  of  a  single  experiment,  and  of  practice- 
effect  upon  them,  indicates  such  a  complex  relationship  of  the 
elements  or  part-processes  that  are  fitted  to  perform  the  office  of 
the  'Common  Factor'  that  it  seems  doubtful  if  there  are  any 
purely  'specific'  elements  in  the  conscious  process.  The  'Com- 
mon Factor'  may  be  constituted  of  formal  modes  of  conscious- 
ness (emotional  and  volitional  attitudes,  modes  and  habits  of 
consciousness,  control  of  attention)  in  which  case  it  effects 
'Spread  of  Training';  or  it  may  be  constituted  of  the  material 
of  consciousness  (imagery,  systems  of  imagery,  direct  and  repre-i 
sentative)  in  which  case  it  effects  'Transference'  of  the- 
elements  of  experience.  Search  for  the  common  factor  should 
not  be  so  conducted  as  to  locate  only  the  latter  form;  experi- 
mental   evidence    indicates    that    the    former    is    more    largely 


240  JOHN  EDGAR  CO  OVER 

responsible  for  the  general  effect  of  special  practice.  In  both 
forms  it  is  selected^  from  former  experience  and  applied  with 
some  degree  of  invention  to  a  more  or  less  novel  situation.  It 
would  seem  that  'adaptability'  consists  in  this  'general'  use 
of  the  forms  and  elements  of  experience  which  had  their  origin 
in  'specific'  reactions  to  specific  stimuli,'  and  that  the  desideratum 
of  the  'learning  process'  consists  in  extending  the  'general' 
applications  as  widely  as  possible.^  There  is  evidence  that  all 
modes  and  elements  of  experience  may  be  the  'Common  Factor' ; 
that  all  effects  of  conscious  practice  are  to  some  extent  'general' 
effects  (pp.  224-233). 

13.  Discussion  throughout  the  text  makes  it  clear  that  much 
further  work  is  needed  in  this  field.  With  improved  method  a 
complete  survey  of  functional  relationship  between  the  mental 
processes  should  be  made.  Many  outstanding  questions  await 
attack:  Conditions  favoring  and  limiting  'general'  effect,  the 
scope  and  causes  of  negative  influence,  the  duration  of  direct, 
and  of  the  various  'general'  applications  of,  training--effect, 
and  its  dependence  upon  length  and  rigor  of  training  and  upon 
kind  of  work ;  relative  dependence  of  individual  variation  in 
processes  upon  nature  and  nurture ;  dependence  of  efficiency  upon 
training   in   a   'best   way'    of   performing   a   mental   task,    etc.^ 

'  This  selection  and  application  is  not  necessarily  purposeful  or  even  evident 
to  introspection.  The  value  of  introspection,  as  has  been  pointed  out  in  the 
text  (p.  181),  does  not  rest  upon  its  assertion  or  denial  of  relationship  be- 
tween processes,  although  its  testimony  concerning  this  may  often  be  true, 
but  upon  a  sufficiently  complete  and  accurate  analysis  of  processes  that  their 
relationship  may  be  evident.  It  is  particularly  competent  to  show  in  this 
way  'Transference'  of  the  elements  of  experience;  'Spread  of  Training,' 
however,  is  likely  to  escape  detection  unless  analyses  are  especially  complete, 
for  it  is  sometimes  extremely  subtle  and  evident  only  through  quantitative 
analysis  (as  in  the  Experiment  on  Reproduction). 

*  Colvin  (Some  facts  in  partial  justification  of  the  so-called  Dogma  of 
Formal  Discipline.  Univ.  111.  Bull.  1910.  7:  No.  26,  p.  31;  also,  The  Learn- 
ing Process.  191 1.  Pp.  242flf)  makes  a  plea  for  the  application  of  this  prin- 
ciple in  school  work,  and  gives  "rules  for  securing  transfer,"  or  for  securing 
a  "general"  training. 

"The  circuitous  process  of  testing  and  abandoning  various  methods  of  work 
which  often  retards  reagents  in  course  of  practice,  and  the  arrest  of  an  occa- 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  241 

After  investigation  has  profited  by  adult  introspective  analysis 
and  it  has  been  carried  out  with  adolescents,  trained  in  introspec- 
tion, and  has  been  quantitatively  checked  by  results  from  children, 
we  may  perhaps  by  reason  of  our  intimate  knowledge  of  the 
functional  relationship  of  mental  processes,  the  integration  of 
experience,  the  formal  learning-process,  be  able  to  determine 
whether  the  limited  time  given  to  formal  education  should  be 
spent  primarily  for  discipline  or  for  knowledge,  whether  infor- 
mation and  aims  belonging  to  adult  vocations  are  as  vital  in  the 
educative  processes  of  children  as  such  information  and  aims 
as  are  incidental  to  the  successful  functioning  of  experience 
through  graded  steps  in  a  formal  training. 

14.  Meanwhile,  experimental  research  in  the  psychological 
laboratory  has  established  certain  functional  relationships  be- 
tween mental  processes  more  or  less  simple,  and  has  singled  out 
factors  responsible  for  the  transference  of  improvement  from 
one  exercise  to  another.  Its  contribution  to  the  general  question 
of  formal  discipline  is  important,  in  that  it  shows  the  general 
effect  of  special  practice;  but  it  is  limited  in  its  scope  to  fairly 
simple  processes,  to  periods  of  short  training,  and,  for  intro- 
spections, to  reagents  upon  whom  training  does  not  produce  great 
practice-effect.  Were  the  processes  as  complex  and  various  as 
those  engaged  in  the  study  of  Greek,  Mathematics,  or  Science; 
were  the  training  to  extend  over  four  school-years  instead  of 
over  ten  weeks  under  limiting  laboratory  conditions;  and  were 
the  subjects  in  the  plastic  period  of  the  'teens,'  it  is  conceivable 
that  the  extent  to  which  the  training  is  general  would  be  found 
to  be  greatly  in  excess  of  the  laboratory  figures. 

sional  reagent  upon  a  low  plateau  by  reason  of  a  peculiarly  inept  metliod  of 
work,  suggest  that  training  in  'good  form'  might  be  the  better  part  of  prac- 
tice, especially  in  the  early  stages,  but  also  in  the  later  stages  which  involve 
transitions  to  new  coordinations  of  part-processes.  This  phase  of  practice  is 
considered  important  in  athletics,  and  in  the  trades  involving  skilled  move- 
ments; and  Swift  (Studies  in  the  psychology  and  physiology  of  learning. 
Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  1903,  14:224)  suggests  its  application  to  the  early  stages  of 
learning  skill,  while  Bryan  and  Harter  (Studies  on  the  telegraphic  language: 
The  acquisition  of  a  hierarchy  of  habits.  Psych.  iRev.,  1899,  6:375),  by 
pointing  out  the  end-processes  of  training,  suggest  its  place  in  the  acquisition 
of  skill  in  such  types  of  learning  as  involve  hierarchies  of  habits. 


.iAfi  JOHN  EDGAR  CO  OVER 

15.  The  contribution  of  Experimental  Psychology  to  the  edu- 
cational theory  of  training  is  timely,  since  intensity  of  work 
and  drill®  is  coming  into  vogue  again.  It  is  found  that  great 
effort  and  rigorous  drill  are  necessary  to  pass  through  'plateaus 
of  growth'  or,  as  Bagley'''  calls  them,  "sloughs  of  despond." 
There  seems  to  be  a  disposition  to  find  the  conditions  of  training 
that  will  "unlock  reservoirs  of  higher  power,"^  and  those  who 
find  satisfaction  in  physiological  explanations  are  turning  to 
the  theory  of  the  'synapse'*^  and  the  "All  or  None"^*'  principle. 
This  increase  of  power  is  deemed  necessary  for  the  acquisition  of 
such  mental  habits  and  such  knowledge  as,  under  the  conditions  of 
our  civilization,  constitute  a  reasonable  preparation  for  complete 
living. 

*  Beckwith  :    Drill,  a  chapter  in  pedagogy.     1905. 

Book :    Psychology  of  skill.    Univ.  Mont.  Bull.     1908.    P.  53. 

Bryan  and  Harter :   Studies  in  telegraphic  language.  Psych.  Rev.  1897.  A'-  V- 

Swift :    Learning  to  Telegraph.     Psych.  Bull.     1910.     7 :  149. 

Wallin :    Has  the  Drill  become  obsolete?    Jr.  Ed.  Psych.     1910.     1:200. 
'Bagley:    Craftsmanship  in  teaching.     Macm.     1911. 
'James:   Energies  of  men.    Science,  1907.  25:  321 ;  also  Am.  Mag.  Nov.  1907. 

*  Sherrington  :    Integrative  action  of  the  nervous  system.     Scribner's.     1906. 
"*  Stiles :    "All  or  None"  principle  and  its  implications.     Am.  Phys.  Ed.  Rev, 

1910.     15:1. 


IV.     BIBLIOGRAPHY 

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reference  is  used). 
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48:303.  (70). 
Abbott,  Edwina  E.    On  the  analysis  of  the  memory  consciousness  in 

orthography.    Psychol.  Rev.  Mon.,  1909,  No.  44:127-158.  (167). 
Aiken,  Catherine.    Methods  of  mind  training  concentrated  attention 

and  memory.    Am.  Bk.,  C1895,  (3). 
Alechsieff,  Nicholaus.  Reactionszeiten  bei  Durchgangsbeobachtungen. 

Phil.  Stud.,  1900,  16:1-60.     (112,  119). 
Angell,  F.     (Commencement  address  at  Castilleja  School,  Palo  Alto, 

California,  1911).  (3). 
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II.  Am.  Jr.  Psychol.,  1900-1901,  12:58-79.     (134,  198). 
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APPENDIX 


APPENDIX  A 

TABLE  I. 

Improvement  as  Shown  by  Tests  on  Other  Functions 

Before  and  After  ii   Days'  Training  on  e-s 

(Text  p.  35) 


Reagent  Gs 

Reagent  Cr 

Speed  in  Sec. 

Accuracy 

Speed  in  Sec.            Accuracy 

Before 

After 
Train- 
ing 

No.  of  Words 

Before 
Train- 
ing 

After 
Train- 
ing 

No.  of  Words 

Training 

Marked 
B.     A. 

Omitted 
B.     A. 

Marked 
B.      A. 

Omitted 
B.      A. 

e — s 

199.5 

85.6 

35 

45 

12 

2 

133-3 

91.8 

46 

47 

5 

0 

i— t 
s-p 
c— a 
e— r 

390 
111.5 
198 
223 

108.6 

124.8 
134 

56 

9 
22 

53 

40 
15 
19 

53 

3 
I 
0 
9 

9 
0 

6 
7 

136.9 

89-4 
1 16.6 
166.5 

120.2 
66.2 
85.6 

135-6 

37 
15 

25 
52 

42 
10 
27 
58 

4 
2 
0 

8 

8 

I 

0 

Totals 

922.5 

462.4 

140 

127 

13 

22 

509.4 

407.6 

129 

137 

14 

II 

a— n 
l-o, 
e— r 

248 
178 
214 

177.8 
133-5 
138 

37 
15 
61 

39 

6 

40 

9 
I 

7 

10 

4 
6 

172.8 

135-8 
212.8 

142.2 
88.6 
134 

31 
16 

62 

35 

9 

42 

15 
0 

7 

14 
I 

4 

Totals 

640 

449-3 

"3       85 

17 

20 

521.4 

364.8 

109 

86 

22 

19 

Nouns 
e— s 

160 
175 

137-8 
99.2 

79 
38 

77 
49 

2 
2 

2 
0 

196.7 
137-6 

184.6 
93 

66 
42 

80 
46 

4 

2 

II 

3 

Functions  on 
SameMt  '1 922.5 
Diff."  640 

462.4 
449-3 

140 
"3 

127 
85 

13 
17 

22 
20 

509.4 
521.4 

407.6 
364-8 

129 
109 

137 
86 

14 

22 

II 
19 

Total 

1562.5 

911.7 

253 

212 

30 

42 

1030.8 

772.4 

238 

223 

36 

30 

26o 


APPENDIX    A 


TABLE  II 

Improvement  Shown  by  Percentages  of  Tests  after  Training  to  Tests  before 
Training  (Text  p.  35) 

Reagent  Gs.  Reagent  Cr 

, ^ ,    , ' ^ 

Speed  Accuracy  Speed  Accuracy 

%  of  After-Test  %  Words  Mkd  %  of  After  Test  %  Words  Mkd 


•43 


Of  Total 


.58 


1.28 


•93 


.69 


.76 


^  The  Trained  Function. 

*  Employed  on  Same  Material  as  Training  Mat'I,  .  . 

"  Employed  on  Different  Material,  .  .  .  Manuscript. 


I. II 


i-t' 

.28 

.86 

.88 

.93 

s-p 

.85 

i.ii 

.74 

1.03 

c-a 

•63 

.76 

7i 

•93 

e-r 

.60 

1.03 

.81 

I.I5 

a-n» 

.71 

.99 

.82 

1.06 

1-0 

.75 

.64 

•65 

.90 

e-r 

•64 

.97 

.63 

1.02 

Nouns 

.86 

1.00 

•94 

.93 

e-s 

•57 

1.05 

.68 

.98 

Functions  on 

Same  Mat'I 

.50 

.93 

.80 

1.03 

Diff.  Mat'I 

•70 

•93 

•70 

.98 

Printed  Columns. 


Reagent  Gs. 


TABLE  III 
Quantitative  Results  (Text,  p.  39) 

Total  Dev.  What  %  of     Avg.  Dev.  in 
Whole  Weight  Lifted  Grams 


Tests  in  Training  Series 
(40-120  grams)    (Avg.  80) 

Objects   inside  of   field 

(49-113  grams)   (Avg.  67.5) 


Objects   outside  of   field 
(146-1870)    (Avg.  552.7  g-) 


Before  After 
12.1%    8.2% 

29.7%  22.1% 
52.8%    29.8% 


Before  After 
9.7      7-2 

20.1     14.9 
291.9  165.6 


%of 
Gain 


25.8% 
28.4% 

43-3% 


e»s   i-t    s-p    c-a    e-r    a-n   l-o    e-r   Nouns   e-s 
PLATE  I.  Reagent  Qs.  Efficienciee  (in  speed)  in  other  Functions 
befora  and  after  Training  on  the  e-s  Function.  The  filled  portion 
ehova  atiount  of  improvement.  (From  Table  I.) 


100 


e-3    i-t    s-p   c-a    e-r    a-n    l-o   e-r   Nouns   e-s 
PLATE  m.  Fleagent  Ge,   Gain  shown  in  per  cent.  Checked  portion 
ehows  amoimt  of  improvement  transferred.        m  ■   . 

—ry  /  /  > 


,25^_ 


e-8         a-t         8-p       c-a        e-r   '       a-n      l-o       e-r       Nouns       e-« 
FIATE  IV.  Reagent  Cr. 
(See  Text,  p.  35) 


^ 

lOOfo 

V// 

1  /  y  /  ]                                       t 

//^// 

y//, 

^ 

^ 

\\ 

/  ^  /  y  f 

501. 
0_ 

e-s    i-t    s-p    c-a   e-r    a-n   l-o    e-r   Nouns   e-3 
PLATE  V.  Gs,  reagent.  Accuracy  in  percent  of  initial  capacity. 
Checked  portion  shows  amount  of  change.  (From  Table  II.) 


lOO:! 


tVTTA 


zzzz. 


^ 


y|ZZZZZ2 


7777r^y^UZ^*^^ 


///A 


50l_ 


e-8         i-t         8-p 


c-a      e-r        a-n      l-o 
PLATE  VI.  Reagent  Cr. 


e-r      Nouns      e-i 


Day      aa.3        ia34        Tfe783      10       11 

PLATE  VII.  Practice-Curve  from  testa  taken  at  beginning  and  end  of 
each  day's  training  of  the  e-s  Function. 

(See  Text,  pp.  35,  38) 


APPENDIX    A 


263 


Reagent  Cr. 


TABLE  IV 
(Text,  p.  39) 


Total  Dev.  What  %  of      Avg.  Dev.  in 
Whole  Weight  Hefted  Grams 


Tests   in   Training   Series 
(40-120  grams)    (Avg.  80  g.) 

Objects   inside   of   field 

(49-113  grams)    (Avg.  67.5  g.) 

Objects  outside  of  field 

(146-1870  g.)    (Avg.  552.7  g.) 


Before  After 

ir.2%    09.0% 

26.1%     i8.S% 
15-3%     52.7% 


Before  After 
8.7      7.2 

17-6    12.5 

84.8  291.6 


%of 
Gain 


20% 
29.2% 
-243.9% 


TABLE  V 
(Text,  p.  39) 


Reagent  Gs. 

Suggestion 

Blocks 

Wt.  of 

Be 

;fore  Training 

After 

Training 

Blocks 

A 

1 

\ 

t 

^ 

1st 

2d 

Total 

99th 

looth 

Total 

40 

0 

+  15 

15 

+5 

+5 

10 

45 

+15 

0 

15 

0 

+  10 

10 

50 

—  ID 

— 10 

20 

— 10 

+5 

15 

55 

+  15 

+  10 

25 

— 5 

+5 

10 

60 

+  15 

0 

15 

5 

— 10 

IS 

65 

—  15 

+  15 

30 

0 

+5 

s 

70 

0 

—5 

5 

0 

—5 

5 

75 

0 

0 

0 

+5 

0 

5 

80 

+5 

+10 

15 

0 

— 10 

10 

, 

85 

—20 

—20 

40 

—15 

— 10 

25 

90 

+  15 

— 5 

20 

+5 

+15 

20 

95 

+15 

— 20 

35 

0 

+20 

20 

100 

+35 

—15 

50 

0 

-fio 

10 

105 

0 

5 

5 

0 

— 10 

10 

no 

+20 

— 5 

25 

+10 

— 20 

30 

IIS 

0 

0 

0 

— 5 

—15 

20 

120 

-f5 

— 10 

15 

—10 

—15 

25 

Totals 

T85 

145 

330 

75 

170 

245 

Average 

165 

122.5 

25.8%  Gain 

264 


APPENDIX    A 


Reagent  Cr. 


Wt.  of 
Blocks 


TABLE  VI 
(Text,  p.  39) 

Before  Training 


ist 


2d 


Total 


After  Training 


99th 


looth       Total 


40 
45 
50 
55 
60 
65 
70 

75 
80 

85 
90 

95 
100 
105 
no 

115 
120 


Totals       17s 
Average 


—5 
o 

+5 
— 10 

+15 

+5 

+20 

—30 
o 

+20 

+20 

o 

+10 

— 20 

O 

— 20 


O 

o 

—5 
+10 

—15 
+10 

—IS 

—25 
o 

—  ID 

+5 

o 

+  10 

+5 
— 10 

+5 

—5 


5 
5 
15 
25 
25 
20 

45 
30 
10 
25 
20 
10 
15 
30 
5 


o 

—5 

o 

+5 

o 

+  10 

o 

— 10 

— 20 

—15 

— ID 

+  15 
— ID 

—5 

—5 

—5 

o 


175 


130 


305 


152.5 


115 


o 

—5 

+15 

—5 

+10 

+10 

+5 

+5 

—5 

+20 

+15 

—5 

— 10 

—5 
+5 
—5 
—5 


130 


o 

ID 

15 
10 
ID 
20 

5 
15 
25 
35 
25 
20 
20 
10 

ID 

ID 

5 


245 

122.S 
20%  Gain 


TABLE  VII 


( 

[Text,  p. 

39) 

Cc 

Deviations  on 

Objects 

OS. 

Wt. 

Be 

ifore  Tra 

lining 

Afte: 

r  Training 

Inside  Field 

1st 

2d 

Total 

1st 

2d 

Total 

I.  Big  Wt. 

81 

—31 

—6 

27 

—26 

—16 

42 

2.  Bar  soap 

113 

—13 

+2 

15 

+  13 

—28 

61 

3.  Eraser 

67 

22 

—17 

39 

— 2 

—7 

9 

4.  Pocket  Bk. 

81 

— I 

— 21 

22 

— I 

— I 

2 

5.  "Outlook" 

los 

—60 

--60 

120 

—30 

—50 

8^ 

6.  Keys 

52 

— 2 

— 7 

9 

—7 

+3 

ID 

7.  $3   silver 

80 

+10 

4-20 

30 

— 5 

0 

5 

8.  Small   Bottle 

(>z 

—18 

—13 

31 

—18 

^8 

26 

9.  Elec.    bulb 

49 

-H6 

+46 

52 

+21 

+26 

47 

10.  Elec.    switch 

84 

+21 

+26 

47 

+6 

+11 

17 

Totals 

675 

184 

218 

402 

149 

150 

299 

Average 

201 

149 
28.4  Gain 

APPENDIX    A 

265 

TABLE  VHI 

(Text,  p. 

39) 

Outside  Field 

II.  Big  Bottle 

317 

—97 

—127 

224 

—127 

+8 

135 

12.  "Outwest" 

280 

—105 

— 100 

205 

—80 

—30 

no 

13.  Mucilage 

330 

—143 

—m 

276 

+67 

—zz 

100 

14.  Munsterberg 

714 

—479 

—364 

843 

—114 

—214 

328 

15.  Mem.  App.  Wt. 

941 

— 641 

—441 

1082 

+159 

+359 

518 

16.  Ps   Molding 

146 

—16 

—16 

32 

—16 

-6 

22 

17.  Hammer 

310 

-165 

— 120 

285 

—135 

+65 

200 

18.  Tin    Box 

462 

—257 

— 162 

419 

-62 

+38 

100 

19.  Key  Mem. 

154 

—24 

—9 

33 

+6 

—4 

10 

20.  Psy.    Rev. 

1870 

—1370 

— 1070 

2440 

— 920 

—870 

1790 

Totals 

5527 

3297 

2542 

5839 

1686 

1627 

3313 

Average 

29195 

1656.5 

43.3%  Gain 

TABLE  IX 

(Text,  p. 

39) 

Deviations  on 

Objects 

Cr. 

Wt. 

Before  Training 

After  Training 

Inside  Field 

ist 

2d 

Total 

!      1st 

2d 

Total 

I.  Big    Wt. 

81 

— I 

-6 

7 

— II 

— II 

22 

2.  Bar  Soap 

113 

—13 

-38 

51 

—3 

+2 

5 

3.  Eraser 

67 

—17 

— 22 

39 

—7 

—7 

14 

4.  Pocket    Bk. 

81 

+  19 

+29 

48 

— ^21 

+29 

SO 

5.  "Outlook" 

105 

—5 

—5 

ID 

—15 

—5 

20 

6.  Keys 

52 

— 2 

—7 

9 

+13 

+8 

21 

7.  $3  Silver 

80 

+20 

+40 

60 

+15 

+20 

35 

8.  Small  Bot. 

63 

—7 

+27 

34 

—18 

—18 

36 

9.  Elec.  Bulb 

49 

—4 

+41 

45 

+  1 

—4 

5 

10.  Elec.  Switch 

84 

—24 

+26 

50 

+26 

+16 

42 

Totals 

67s 

112 

241 

353 

130 

120 

250 

Average 

176.5 

125 

29.2%  Gain 

TABLE  X 

( 

[Text,  p. 

39) 

Outside  Field 

II.  Big  Bottle 

2^7 

—117 

—117 

234 

—77 

—77 

154 

12.  "Out  West" 

280 

—5 

+120 

125 

+70 

+20 

90 

13.  Mucilege 

333 

+67 

+17 

84 

+667 

+567 

1234 

14.  Miinsterberg 

714 

—214 

—114 

328 

4-286 

+86 

372 

15.  Mem.  App.  Wt 

:.  941 

+59 

+59 

118 

+59 

+59 

118 

16.  Pc   Molding 

146 

+104 

+  104 

208 

— 21 

—16 

37 

17.  Hammer 

310 

— 10 

+90 

100 

+40 

+90 

130 

18.  Tin    Box 

462 

-^7 

—62 

149 

+238 

—162 

400 

19.  Key  Mem. 

154 

+4 

+96 

100 

—14 

—24 

38 

20.  Psy.  Rev. 

1870 

+  130 

— 120 

250 

+1130 

+2130 

3260 

Totals 

5527 

797 

899 

1696 

2602 

3231 

5833 

Average 

848 

2916.5 

243.970  Loss 

Gram* 
100_ 


75  _ 


50, 


25  _ 


___^  Weight  of  Objact 

...  Average  deviation  After  Training 
,...  Average  deviation  Before  Training 


Object      9 


10 


PLATE  VIII.  Reagent  Ce.  Weights  of  Objects  Inside  the  Field,  and 
average  deviationa  of  judgpranto.  (Froa  Table  VII») 


1200__ 
1100_ 

1000_ 

90Q_ 

800_ 

700_ 
60QL. 

50CL_ 

40Q_ 
300 

200 



100_ 

o__ 

Object     16         19  12  17         11  13  13         14 

PLATE  IX.   Reagent  Gs.     Objecte  Outside  of  Field. 
(See  Text,  p.  40) 


15 


20 


100. 


75. 


50. 


25  _ 


Weight  of  ObJ«ete 

Average  Deviation  Before  Training 

Average  Deviation  After  Training 


0   


0bj<3t 9 


10 


PLATE  X.  Reagent  Cr.  Weighte  of  Objeeta  Inaide  the  Field,  and 
average  deviatione  of  JudgEtente.  (From  Table  IX.) 


120Q_ 

110Q_ 

100Q_ 

90Q_ 

800- 

70Q_ 

60Q_ 

500 

40Q_ 

30Q_ 

20Q_ 

10Q_ 

0 


Objeo'c  16 


19     12     17    11     13     18    14     15 
PLATE  XI.  Reagent  Cr.  Objecto  Outside  of  Field. 
(See  Text,  p,  40) 


20 


APPENDIX    A 


269 


TABLE  XI 

Regular  Reagents   (Text,  p.  44) 

Brightness-Discrimination.     Before  Training 

(Judgments  on  90  variables) 


Degrees    of 

^. 

LW. 

^ 

fa. 

Ya 

White 

iR 

W 

U 

%R 

1 
R 

w 

U 

%R 

R 

W 

U 

%R 

160° 

12 

0 

3 

.80 

II 

I 

3 

•73 

8 

2 

5 

•54 

i6s° 

10 

3 

2 

.67 

10 

0 

5 

.67 

10 

3 

2 

.67 

170' 

10 

I 

4 

.67 

4 

2 

9 

.27 

7 

4 

4 

.47 

175° 

5 

8 

2 

•33 

3 

2 

10 

.20 

4 

4 

7 

•27 

i8o» 

i8s° 

II 

2 

2 

.73 

8 

I 

6 

•54 

7 

6 

2 

•47 

i90» 

12 

0 

3 

.80 

10 

0 

5 

.<^ 

II 

2 

2 

■7Z 

Totals 

60 

14 

16 

46 

6 

38 

47 

21 

22 

%R 

66.7 

51 

.1 

52.2 

%U 

17.8 

42 

.2 

24.4 

(21  Days'  Training  on  Sound  during  an  interval  of  64  days) 


TABLE  XII 

(Text,  p.  44) 

Brightness-Discrimination.     After  Training 

(Judgments  on  90  variables) 


Aw. 


Na. 


Ya. 


r 

r    '" 

»R 

W 

U 

%R 

R 

W 

u 

%R 

R 

W 

U 

%R 

i6o» 

IS 

0 

0 

1. 00 

14 

I 

0 

•93 

12 

0 

3 

.80 

165° 

13 

I 

I 

.87 

8 

4 

3 

•54 

5 

2 

8 

.33 

170" 

10 

2 

3 

.67 

7 

4 

4 

•47 

4 

5 

b 

•27 

175° 

10 

2 

3 

•67 

4 

7 

4 

•27 

I 

6 

8 

•07 

180" 

185° 

5 

6 

4 

•33 

7 

I 

7 

•47 

12 

2 

I 

.80 

I90» 

II 

2 

2 

.73 

12 

2 

I 

.80 

13 

0 

2 

•87 

Totals 

64 

13 

13 

52 

19 

19 

47 

15 

28 

%R 

71. 

I 

57.8 

52 

.2 

%U 

144 

2I.I 

31 

.1 

270 


APPENDIX    A 


TABLE  XIII 

Regular  Reagent  Cr.  (Text,  p.  44) 

Brightness-Discrimination 


Before  Training 
Degrees      (Judgments  on  76  Variables) 
of  White  R      W      U    %  R 


no* 

8 

0 

2 

.80 

120° 

6 

I 

2 

.67 

130° 

S 

3 

2 

.50 

135° 

6 

0 

4 

.60 

140° 

145° 

2 

2 

6 

.20 

150° 

4 

0 

5 

.44 

160° 

6 

0 

3 

.67 

170° 

7 

0 

2 

.78 

Totals 

44 

6 

26 

%R 

57-5 

%U 

33-7 

After  Training 
(Judgments  on  80  VariaWes) 
R       W     U   %R 

10         O         O     I.OO 
10  O  O      1.00 

8  I        I      .80 
4       2       4      40 

7  2  I  .70 

9  I  o  .90 
10  o  o  1.00 
10  o  o  1.00 


68      16 


85.0 

7-5 


Intensity 


TABLE  XIV 

(Text,  p.  43) 

Sound-Discrimination.     Beginning  Training 

(Judgments  on  60  Variables) 


Aw. 


Na. 


Ya. 


Cr. 


R 

W 

U  %R 

r" 

W 

U  %R 

R 

W 

U  %R 

R 

W 

U 

%E 

23-57 

3 

5 

2    .30 

5 

3 

2 

.50 

3 

6 

I    .30 

4 

3 

3 

.40 

25.06 

2 

5 

3     .20 

3 

3 

4 

.30 

I 

5 

4    .10 

5 

4 

I 

SO 

26.48 

I 

5 

4     .10 

5 

0 

5 

.50 

5 

3 

2    .50 

6 

0 

4 

.60 

27.83 

29.12 

6 

I 

3     .60 

I 

3 

6 

.10 

4 

I 

5    .40 

4 

3 

3 

.40 

30.35 

5 

2 

3     .50 

3 

2 

5 

.30 

6 

I 

3     60 

4 

3 

3 

.40 

32.68 

5 

2 

3     .50 

5 

4 

I 

.50 

7 

^ 

I     .70 

4 

4 

2 

.40 

Totals 

22 

20 

18 

22 

15 

23 

26 

18 

76 

27 

17 

16 

%R 

36.7 

36.7 

43.3 

4S.O 

%u 

30.0 

38.3 

26.7 

26.7 

Intensity 


TABLE  XV 

(Text,  p.  43) 

Sound-Discrimination  Ending  Training 

(Judgments  on  60  Variables) 

Aw.  Na.  Ya. 


Cr. 


R 

W 

U  %R 

/ — 
R 

W 

U 

7f  R 

R 

W 

U 

R 

W 

U 

23-57 

6 

4 

0    .60 

5 

2 

3 

■50 

5 

4 

I 

•.so 

6 

4 

0 

.60 

25.06 

3 

5 

2    .30 

4 

2 

4 

.40 

3 

5 

2 

■30 

6 

4 

0 

.60 

26.48 

2 

3 

5      -20 

4 

3 

3 

.40 

3 

2 

5 

•30 

6 

2 

2 

.60 

27.83 

29.12 

8 

2 

0  .80 

5 

2 

3 

•50 

5 

0 

5 

•50 

6 

2 

2 

.60 

30.35 

6 

2 

2      .60 

2 

5 

3 

.20 

4 

2 

4 

.40 

4 

4 

2 

40 

32.68 

6 

4 

0     .60 

5 

5 

0 

.50 

4 

4 

2 

.40 

6 

2 

2 

.60 

Totals 

31 

20 

9 

25 

19 

16 

24 

16 

20 

34 

18 

8 

%R 

51.7 

41.7 

40.0 

56.7 

%U 

15.0 

26 

•7 

33-3 

13.3 

TABLE  XVI 

Control  Reagents.  (Text,  p.  44) 
Brightness-Discrimination.   Before   Interval 
(Judgments  on  60  Variables) 
Rl.  An.  Wr. 


Degrees 
of  White 

R 

W 

U 

%R 

'R 

W 

U 

%R 

r- 

R 

W 

U 

%B 

160° 

8 

0 

2 

.80 

4 

2 

4 

•40 

8 

I 

1 

.80 

165° 

7 

I 

2 

.70 

5 

3 

2 

•50 

7 

3 

0 

•70 

170° 

5 

4 

I 

.50 

4 

2 

4 

.40 

7 

2 

I 

.70 

175° 
180° 

4 

2 

4 

.40 

4 

3 

3 

.40 

7 

3 

0 

.70 

185° 

7 

2 

1 

.70 

6 

2 

2 

.60 

10 

0 

0 

1.00 

190" 

10 

0 

0 

1. 00 

8 

I 

I 

.80 

7 

3 

0 

.70 

Totals 

41 

9 

10 

31 

13 

16 

46 

12 

2 

%R 

%U 

68.3 
16.7 

51.7 
26.7 

76.7 
3-3 

(46  Days'  Interval  Without  Training) 

TABLE  XVII 
Brightness-Discrimination.    After  Interval 
(Judgment  on  60  Variables) 
Rl.  An.  Wr. 


^•^ 

f — " 

1 

Degrees 

R 

W 

U 

%R 

R 

W 

U 

7oR 

R 

W 

U 

7oF 

of  White 

160° 

9 

0 

I 

.90 

4 

3 

3 

.40 

9 

I 

0 

.90 

165° 

8 

I 

I 

.80 

3 

4 

3 

■30 

10 

0 

0 

1. 00 

170° 

3 

I 

6 

•30 

4 

2 

4 

.40 

5 

2 

3 

•50 

175° 

4 

4 

2 

.40 

4 

5 

I 

.40 

4 

3 

3 

.40 

180° 

185° 

5 

2 

3 

•50 

7 

0 

3 

.70 

6 

4 

0 

.60 

190° 

9 

I 

0 

.90 

H 

I 

1 

.80 

9 

0 

I 

.90 

Totals 

38 

9 

13 

30 

15 

15 

43 

ID 

7 

%R 

63.3 

50.0 

71 

•7 

%U 

21.7 

25.0 

11 

•/ 

2T2 


APPENDIX    A 


TABLE  XVIII 

(Text,  p.  44) 

Comparison  of  Data  (Absolute  Amounts) 

Regular  Reagents 


A.  Right  Judgments 


Tests 

No.  R.  Before 
No.  R  After 

Difference 
Training  in  Sound 
No.  R  at  Beginning 
No.  iR  at  End 

Difference 


Aw. 


Na. 


Ya. 


+9 


+3 


B.  Undecided  Judgments 


Aw. 


Na. 


Ya. 


Cr. 


60 

64 

46 

52 

47 
47 

46 
68 

f4 

+6 

0 

+22 

22 
31 

22 

25 

26 
24 

27 
34 

+7 


Cr. 


Total 

199 
231 

+32 

97 
114 

+17 


Total 


Tests 
No.  U  Before 
No.  U  After 

16 
13 

38 
19 

22 

28 

27 
6 

103 
66 

Difference 
Training  in  Sound 
No.  U  at  Beginning 
No.  U  at  End 

—3 

18 
9 

—19 

23 
16 

+6 

16 
20 

— 21 

16 
8 

—Z7 
53 

Difference 

—9 

—7 

+4 

—8 

— 20 

Control  Reagents 

C. 

R  and  U  Judgments 

Tests 

Before  and  After  Interval 

Without  Training 

No.  R  Before 

No.  R  After 

Rl. 

41 
38 

An, 

31 
30 

Wr. 

46 
43 

Tote 

118 
III 

Difference 

—3 

— I 

—3 

—7 

No.  U  Before 
No.   U  After 

10 
13 

16 

15 

2 

7 

28 
35 

Difference 

+3 

— I 

+5 

+7 

APPENDIX    A 


273 


TABLE  XIX 

(Text,  p.  44) 

Comparison  of  Data  (Relative) 

(All  per  cents  are  reckoned  upon  the  whole  number  of  judgments 

represented  in  table) 

Regular  Reagents 


Tests 

Per  cent  R  Before 
Per  cent  R  After 


A.  Right  Judgments 


Aw. 

66.7 
71. 1 


Na. 

51. 1 
57.8 


Ya. 
52.2 

52.2 


Cr. 

57-5 
85.0 


Differences 


+15 


+5 


-33 


+11.7 


Total 

56.9 
66.0 


Difference 

+44 

+6.7 

0 

+27.5 

+9.1 

Training  in  Sound 

Per  cent  R  Beginning 

36.7 

36.7 

43-3 

45.0 

40.4 

Per  cent  R  End 

51-7 

41.7 

40.0 

56.7 

47.5 

+7.1 


B.  Undecided  Judgments 


Tests 
Per  cent  U  Before 
Per  cent  U  After 


Aw. 

17.8 
14.4 


Na. 

42.2 
21. 1 


Ya. 

244 
311 


Cr. 

33.7 

7-5 


Difference  — 15 


—1 1.6 


+6.6 


-134 


Control  'Reagents 
R  and  U  Judgments 


Tests 

Before  and  After  Interval 

Without  Training 
Per  cent  R  Before 
Per  cent  R  After 


Rl. 


68.3 
633 


Difference  — 5 


An. 


517 
SO 

—1-7 


Wr. 


76.7 
71.7 


Total 

29.4 
19 


Difference 

—34 

— 21.1 

+6.7 

— 26.2 

—104 

Training  in  Sound 

Per  cent  U  Beginning 

30 

:^.3 

26.7 

26.7 

30.4 

Per  cent  U  at  End 

15 

26.7 

33-3 

13.3 

22 

-84 


ToUl 


65.5 
61.7 


Per    cent   U    Before 
Per   cent   U   After 


16.7 

21.7 


26.7 
25 


3-3 
11.7 


15-5 
194 


Difference 


+5 


—1.7 


+84 


+3-9 


274 


APPENDIX    A 


TABLE  XX 

(Text,  p.  si) 
Orders  for  Cards 
12362145346315425641324352651652615342314 

Continue  Orders  i  &  4 — 612451364 
Continue  Orders  2  &  5 — 652361346 
Continue   Orders  3   &  6 — 652451362 


Order  i 
Order  2 
Order  3 
Order  4 
Order  5 
Order  6 


Changes  of  Equivalence 


Y. 

2 
I 
6 

5 
4 
3 


G. 

3 

2 
I 
6 


B. 

4 

3 

2 
I 
6 

5 


Colors ; 


i?ed 

Fellow 

Green 

B\nt 

Brown 

Black 


Br. 

5 
4 
3 
2 
I 
6 


BI. 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

I 


By  reversing  the  above  6  Orders  the  12  Orders  were  made  up. 


APPENDIX    A  275 


TABLI 

lXXI 

(Text,  pp.  53 

,  54,  56, 

57) 

Reaction; 

;  on   Typewriter 

(per   100) 

\.  Before 

Training 

CI. 

Al. 

Cr. 

Bs. 

Sec. 

Errors 

Sec. 

•> 
Errors 

Sec. 

Errors 

Sec. 

Errors 

71 

2 

94 

0 

73 

3 

/o«.5 

8 

71 

0 

104 

4.5 

74 

4 

1054 

2 

73 

I 

102 

5 

71.6 

I 

99-3 

3 

79 

I 

85 

I 

83 

4 

99.7 

7 

81 

1.5 

81 

5 

75 

3-5 

96.4 

6 

79 

0.5 

86 

2 

7^-5 

3 

87.7 

5 

72 

0 

78 

I 

71.2 

4-5 

79-4 

4 

75 

2 

82 

5 

71 

4-5 

88.2 

I 

71 

.    0 

80 

I 

69.8 

4-5 

83.2 

3 

71 

I 

79 

6 

71 

4 

94-7 

4 

73 

3 

76 

3 

71-5 

I 

89.7 

0 

66 

I 

75-6 

8 

73-2 

4 

93-2 

5 

66.8 

2.6 

754 

5-5 

68.2 

4 

82.S 

4 

684 

0 

75.8 

7 

69.5 

3.5 

80.8 

3 

694 

0 

704 

5 

69 

2 

71.8 

1 

68 

0 

70.8 

6 

674 

0 

lOI.I 

4.5 

65.8 

2 

704 

7 

674 

6 

84.S 

4 

73-1 

0 

82.2 

4 

69.4 

3 

85.5 

6 

704 

0 

81.2 

5 

71-3 

5 

84.1 

4 

69 

0.5 

81.7 

4.5 

67.8 

6 

79.6 

3 

64.8 

I 

79.1 

4-5 

684 

6 

81 

2 

704 

2.5 

77.9 

7.5 

66.8 

3 

78.6 

5 

66.1 

1-5 

73Ji 

3 

68.1 

2 

74-3 

4 

65.7 

0.5 

695 

7 

67.1 

3 

85.5 

II 

594 

0 

74.6 

6 

66.4 

4 

81.6 

7 

64.8 

2.5 

73.8 

10 

68.1 

2 

74-5 

2 

63.8 

0.6 

74-7 

8 

65.3 

I 

75.8 

3 

63.5 

I 

73.1 

8 

80.9 

6 

624 

0 

70.5 

2.5 

82.6 
76.3 

7 
5 
3 

B.  After 

Training 

a. 

Al. 

Cr. 

Bs. 

Sec. 

— ' \ 

Errors 

Sec. 

Errors 

Sec. 

Errors 

Sec. 

Errors 

64.5 

0 

67.9 

9 

65.2 

3 

69.6 

ID 

64 

I 

64.2 

6.5 

643 

5 

68.3 

8 

61 

0.5 

62.6 

5-5 

69.2 

6 

72.8 

8 

63.5 

1-5 

65.6 

II 

68.2 

5 

694 

8 

62.9 

1.5 

64.3 

10 

66.3 

5 

72.7 

5 

63 

2.5 

66.3 

6 

65.2 

4-5 

71.6 

8 

61.2 

I 

63.  r 

12 

60.8 

2 

68.8 

3-5 

60.9 

1-5 

61.8 

II 

61.2 

5-5 

69.2 

2 

62.3 

I 

62.1 

IS 

61.5 

7 

71.8 

5 

61 

I 

66.5 

II 

63 

3 

65.7 

o.S 

61.6 

1-5 

61.5 

8.5 

64.2 

6 

693 

7 

60.9 

0 

62.3 

10.5 

62 

5 

69 

2 

62.6 

2 

63.2 

17 

62.2 

4 

66.4 

8 

57-9 

0 

60.5 

11-5 

58.8 

0 

65.5 

3 

61.9 

1-5 

60.8 

13-5 

62.5 

5 

59-2 

3 

60.6 

1-5 

58.9 

10 

61 

7 

69.5 

II 

60.5 

I 

60.9 

15.5 

63.5 

8 

70.7 

10 

59.2  0.5  61.6         13  61.9  9-5 


276  APPENDIX    A 


TABLE  XXII 


(Text,  pp.  53,  55,  56) 

Reactions  on  Typewriter   (Avg.  per  lOO  per  Day) 

A.  Before  Training 

a.  Al.  Cr.  Bs. 


Sec. 

Errors 

Sec. 

Errors 

Sec. 

Errors 

Sec. 

Errors 

71 

2 

94 

0 

73 

3 

99.5 

5 

76 

0.9 

93 

4 

76.0 

3 

87.3 

3 

73-5 

I.I 

80.0 

3 

71.2 

35 

84.0 

4.5 

67.4 

I 

73.1 

6.3 

69.1 

3 

80.1 

5-3 

69 

I.O 

79.3 

4-5 

69.1 

5 

77.9 

4-3 

63.3 

0.8 

72.7 

7 
B.  After 

67 
Training 

4 

6i.3 

I 

65.2 

8 

66.4 

4.5 

70.7 

8 

61.3 

I 

62.9 

II 

62.1 

4-5 

69 

3'Z 

60.4 

I 

61.0 

13 

61.7 

5-4 

66.3 

6 

TABLE  XXIII 

(Text,  pp.  53,  56,  57) 

Reactions  on  Typewriter  (per  100)  (Control  Reagents) 

Before  Interval 
Mn.  Ge.  Gs. 


9I.I 

2 

147.3 

7 

107.1 

0 

95.7 

3.6 

125.7 

4 

79.1 

0 

9I.I 

6.5 

154.2 

3.5 

79.9 

1.5 

93.7 

6 

157.9 

3.5 

84.8 

2.5 

86.1 

5 

131.8 

2.5 

85.8 

1.5 

86.7 

8 

133.6 

2 

85.4 

I 

76.7 

3-5 

106.2 

3 

75.5 

3 

1 16.5 

2 

76.8 

8 

119 

2 

70.9 

8 

127.2 

0.5 

73 

7 

111.7 

0 

71.7 

14 

118.1 

I 

78.1 

5 

82.2 

I 

73-9 

6 

90.8 

1.5 

76.8 

8 

95.5 

2 

73,7 

6 

97.4 

I 

74 

5 

106.6 

I 

67.4 

8 

100.6 
99.7 

After 

I 
2 

Interval 

73 

4 

91.4 

1.5 

56 

0 

73-4 

3 

84.2 

I 

76.4 

2 

70.4 

7 

82.2 

0 

83.7 

0 

68.4 

2 

104.9 

3 

77.1 

o.S 

68.7 

6 

91.7 

3 

82.5 

3 

70 

5.5 

88.7 

0 

774 

I 

70.7 

3 

83.4 

0.5 

69.6 

3 

81.7 

0 

66.7 

5 

91.5 

2 

64.6 

II 

95.1 

3.5 

63.3 

6.5 

82.5 

I 

62.3 

8 

82.9 

I 

APPENDIX    A  277 

TABLE  XXIII   (Con.) 
Second  Group,  Control  'Reagents 
Before  Interval 
Day  Bd.  Bh.  Bs.2  Cf. 


i/i      I 

102 

7 

100 

3 

100 

7 

128.4 

I 

3/5        2 

934 

14+ 

84.2 

6+ 

87.6 

5 

112 

I 

92.6 

13+ 

744 

8+ 

82.8 

I 

118 

I 

87.4 

7+ 

75 

5+ 

75.8 

4+ 

100.8 

0 

86.6 

5+ 

78 

5 

72 

2+ 

102.6 

0 

86 

5+ 

76.8 

7 

70.8 

3+ 

96 

0 

80 

7 

76.4 

7 

73 

2 

934 

I 

3/8        3 

84.2 

5+ 

79 

0 

72.8 

3+ 

924 

I 

81 

7 

72.4 

I 

7Z 

3+ 

88 

2+ 

77.4 

4 

80 

4+ 

68.4 

2 

80.8 

0 

73-2 

3+ 

76.2 

2 

66.4 

3 

87.2 

0 

79 

3+ 

76.2 

3+ 

68.6 

4 

87 

I 

76 

4 

734 

4 

68.6 

0 

88.6 

I 

3/10        4 

71.2 

3 

76.6 

4 

62.6 

I 

81.8 

0 

67.1 

3 

74.2 

2 

65.6 

I 

78.2 

0 

72.6 

4 

724 

6 

67 

5 

88.4 

I 

71.6 

5+ 

72.4 

II 

62.8 

3 

80.8 

2+ 

72.8 

4 

75 

5+ 

61.2 

3 

80.4 

0 

68.8 

3 

74 

6 

62.4 

4 

86.2 

I 

3/12      5 

69.4 

2 

71.8 

7+ 

64.8 

3 

80.8 

I 

66 

0 

674 

8 

62.6 

I 

77.8 

0 

68.6 

3 

664 

8 

63 

6 

76.8 

0 

67 

7 

64.8 

13+ 

67.6 

4+ 

75 

0 

66.6 

2+ 

654 

7 

62.6 

3 

74.8 

0 

67.6 

3+ 

66.2 

10 

60.4 

0 

74 

0 

3/15      6 

65.6 

I 

70 

7 

61.6 

4+ 

7i-(> 

I 

63.2 

1+ 

66.6 

6 

69.4 

I 

68 

0 

66.2 

3+ 

63 

7 

60 

2 

70.4 

I 

64.6 

5 

62.2 

5 

62.4 

3 

74 

0 

65.4 

4 

64.6 

II 

60.4 

6 

714 

2 

65.4 

2 

60.6 

5 

62.2 

4 

75.2 

0+ 

/i/f?r  Interval 

I 

64.6 

2+ 

70.4 

2 

63 

2 

75-2 

2 

62.6 

4 

62.6 

6 

58.6 

3 

65.2 

I 

65 

2+ 

62.4 

5 

60.6 

4 

69.4 

0 

63.8 

2 

s8.ot 

4 

60.4 

6 

71.6 

1+ 

66 

4 

61.4 

5+* 

59.6t 

2 

65.2 

I 

65 

6 

6i4t 

8+* 

57.6t 

4+ 

62.2 

I 

2 

62.8 

4 

64.4 

4 

58 

7 

67.6 

2 

634 

4 

60 

4 

58.4 

4 

64.4 

2 

60 

5 

61.2 

7 

56.6 

6 

68 

0 

61 

5+ 

61.6 

4+ 

54 

4 

67 

0 

61 

3+ 

59-6 

6 

54 

3 

70.4 

I 

59-2 

7+ 

57.8 

5 

55 

5 

66.2 

0 

3 

58.6 

7 

59-6 

3 

54.8 

4+* 

65.8 

2 

56.8 

3 

56.6 

6+ 

57.6 

3 

57 

0 

61 

7+ 

59 

8+ 

57.6 

5 

64.2 

0 

60 

8 

60 

5 

58.2 

3 

65.0 

2+ 

58.6 

7 

61.6 

7 

59-2 

4 

68.6 

0 

*  Over  10  reactions  one  place  late, — a  distinct  process  of  reaction  which 
greatly  decreases  the  time. 
t  Memory  of  the  beginning  of  the  series. 


^78 


APPENDIX    A 


TABLE  XXIV 

(Text,  p.  56) 

Reactions  on  Typewriter  (Avg.  per  100  per  Day)  (Control  Reagents) 

Before  Interval 
Ge. 


Mm. 


Gs. 


1 

90.7 
74.1 

74 

5 

7-5 

6.3 

141. 8          4 
116.5           1.3 
96.1           1.5 

After  Interval 

87 

I 

70.7 
66.2 

4.5 
7 

90.5           1.3 
86.2           1.3 

80.5 

I 

TABLE  XXIV  (Con.) 
Second  Group  Control  Reagents 
Before  Interval 
Bd.  Bh.  Bs.2 


Cf. 


102 

7 

100 

3 

100 

7 

128.4 

I 

87.7 

8.5 

77-5 

6.3 

77.0 

2.8 

103.8 

o.S 

78.5 

4-3 

76.2 

2-3 

69.6 

2.5 

87.3 

0.8 

70.7 

3.7 

74.1 

5.7 

63.6 

2.8 

82.6 

0.7 

67.5 

2.8 

67.0 

7-3 

63.5 

2.8 

76.5 

0.2 

65.1 

2.7 

64.5 

6.8 

62.7 

ZZ 

72.1 

0.7 

After  Interval 

64.5 

ZZ 

62.7 

4.8 

60.0 

3-5 

68.8 

i.o 

61.2 

4.7 

60.8 

50 

56.0 

4.8 

67.3 

0.8 

59.0 

6.4 

59.4 

5.8 

57.5 

3.8 

64.1 

0.8 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

00 

t- 

«o 

tn 

o 

o» 

00 

t- 

o 
in 


282  APPENDIX    A 

TABLE  XXV 

(Text,  pp.  53,  54,  56) 
Card-Sorting  Reaction  (per  loo) 
CI.  Al.  Cr.  Bs. 


Sec. 

Errors 

Sec. 

Errors 

Sec. 

Errors 

Sec. 

Errors 

112 

0 

136-6 

2 

130.2 

0 

/JJ.8 

0 

I00.6 

0 

134 

5 

122.4 

2 

127.6 

I 

III.2 

0 

119.2 

0 

108.6 

3 

1 17.8 

4 

103.4 

0 

1 1 6.4 

2 

112 

3 

129.4 

2 

96.8 

0 

123 

I 

112.2 

2 

124.2 

0 

93.2 

I 

109 

2 

103.8 

2 

111.8 

3 

99.8 

I 

/0J.6 

3 

96.2 

0 

-f/5 

0 

101. 8 

0 

103.4 

2 

97.2 

I 

107.5 

3 

92 

0 

105.4 

2 

109-5 

4 

1 01 .6 

4 

100.6 

6 

104.5 

2 

89.3 

0 

89.4 

0 

97.6 

3 

98.4 

2 

101.4 

I 

88.6 

0 

91.6 

I 

102.6 

7 

87.4 

5 

88 

0 

91.4 

I 

99 

2 

100 

2 

90.4 

0 

96.2 

8 

97 

I 

99-2 

2 

91.6 

0 

92.2 

3 

95-4 

2 

100.8 

2 

87.9 

0 

94.8 

4 

88.2 

0 

96 

3 

93 

0 

91.8 

6 

99.2 

I 

90.6 

0 

91.8 

3 

92.4 

3 

98.4 

2 

90.4 

0 

91.6 

3 

90.6 

4 

95.5 

I 

90 

I 

88 

2 

88.8 

2 

100.5 

4 

91.8 

0 

89.8 

5 

93-4 

3 

96.5 

6 

93-4 

0 

88 

5 

96 

2 

97.5 

3 

92.2 

0 

90.2 

3 

96.2 

5 

/op 

7 

85.4 

0 

91.4 

2 

89.8 

4 

103.5 

6 

94-8 

0 

87.2 

4 

95.5 

5 

97 

5 

90.4 

0 

91.4 

4 

92.4 

2 

95.5 

2 

84-5 

0 

91.8 

4 

94.8 

5 

103 

3 

81.5 

0 

96 

4 

95-2 

2 

102 

5 

81.5 

0 

98 

9 

92.4 

I 

9^-5 

I 

85 

2 

100.4 

7 

89.2 

2 

89 

0 

89 

0 

96.6 

4 

91.5 

I 

105 

8 

85 

0 

91.8 

3 

88 

3 

95-5 

I 

89.2 

I 

96 

4 

92 

5 

90.5 

3 

86.4 

0 

94.8 

3 

91-5 

3 

89.5 

2 

85.5 

0 

88.4 

6 

59.^ 

I 

89.5 

2 

82 

0 

90.4 

4 

86.2 

6 

88 

I 

79.5 

0 

89.8 

7 

97 

4 

9^ 

5 

79 

I 

94.2 

5 

97-5 

4 

90.5 

I 

81 

0 

93 

2 

88 

0 

83.5 

0 

96 

5 

87 

I 

82 

0 

93-5 

6 

81 

0 

88.5 

91.5 

95.5 

93-5 

94 

92.5 

96 
92 
92 
91 

6 
2 

14 

2 

7 
4 
4 
S 
8 
4 
3 

APPENDIX    A 


283 


TABLE  XXVI 

(Text,  p.  53) 

Card-Sorting  Reaction  (Avg.  per  100  per  Day) 


CI. 


Al. 


Cr. 


Bs. 


Sec. 

Errors 

Sec. 

Errors 

Sec. 

Errors 

Sec. 

Errors 

106.8 

0 

I3S-3 

3.5 

126.3 

I 

127.2 

1.8 

107.3 

0 

1 17.8 

I 

1 10.3 

3 

118 

1-5 

97.9 

0.5 

116 

1-5 

102.4 

1-3' 

109. 1 

1-5 

90.6 

0 

102.9 

3 

102 

4-3 

97 

2.5 

89.1 

0 

94.2 

Zi 

94-9 

1-3 

98.6 

2 

90.8 

0 

93-5 

3-5 

90.9 

3.8 

98.2 

3-5 

90.2 

0.5 

90.5 

2 

93-9 

3.5 

106.2 

6.5 

90.7 

0 

88.9 

5 

S^.6 

3.5 

99-4 

3.8 

92.6 

0 

90 

3-3 

90.8 

1-5 

95-5 

2.3 

83.1 

0.5 

96.5 

6 

90.8 

3 

89.4 

r> 

87 

0 

94.2 

3-5 

87.7 

3.5 

89.4 

1.8 

87.3 

0.5 

95-4 

3-5 

95-9 

3.8 

81.5 

0.3 

90.7 

5-5 

92.8 

6.2 

81.9 

0 

93-1 
91-5 

5-3 
3.5 

TABLE  XXVII 

(Text,  pp.  57,  58) 

Comparison  of  Gains  Between  Training  Periods 

Typewriter-Reaction 


Training  Reagents 
(4th  and  5th  Days,  in 
Practice.) 

Control  Reagents 
(4th  and  5th  Days 
after  Interval.) 

Avg.  of  2nd  and  3rd  Days 

Avg.  of  4th  and  5th  Days 

a. 

70.5 
66.1 

Al.      Cr. 
76.6     70.0 
76.0     67.9 

Bs. 
86.0 
79 

Mn.      Ge. 
74      105.S 
68.4     88.4 

Gain 
%  Gain 

Avg.  last  two  Days  before  Card 
Practice 

First  two  after 

4-4 
6 

66.1 
62.Z 

0.6       2.1 
0.8       3 

76.0     67.9 
64.0     64.3 

7.0 
8 

79 
69.9 

5-6      17.1 
7         16 

Gain 
%  Gain 

3.8 
6 

12.0       3.6 
16          5 

91 
12 

/ 
/ 


f 

I 


\ 

I 
/ 

\ 
} 

I 

( 

\ 

) 


I 

\ 


& 


r-T — r 


U    o        o        o      o      o 

<!5     Ci  O  00        V         C\» 

W     r-1  r-t  r-i         i~i  r-t 


i 

I 

I 


I 


\ 


z. 


S 
\ 


a 


/ 


1     r 

o       o      o 

Oi  O  00 


2 


9 


r—\ — r 


oo  o  o  o  o 
<n  CI  »H  o  a»  CO 


o  o  o  o 

»H  O  0»  CO 


o  o  o  o 

»-i    O  0»  00 


o  o  o  o 

•H   O   0»   00 


286 


APPENDIX    A 


TABLE  XXVIII 
(See  Text,  footnote  pp.  58-9) 

Time  per  pack  of  50  cards,  sorted  by  suit  into  four  compartments,  showing 
the  influence  of  practice  in  the  typewriter-reaction. 


Before  Interval 
Regular  Reagents 


Control  Reagents 


Bd. 

Bh, 

Bs.2 

Cf. 

Cn. 

Sn. 

"* 

55       0 
57.5     I 
55        0 
50        0 

554 
51 
52.6 
48 

0 

I 
I 
I 

52.4    0 

54-6     0 
50        0 
52.6     I 

62.4     I 
70       0 
67       0 
67       0 

57.4     0 
52.4     0 
53-6     I 
48        I 

48.8 
50.6 
49 
50.6 

0 
I 
0 

I 

Total 

217.5     I 

207.0 

3 

209.6    I 

266.4    I 

211.4    2 

199.0 

2 

After  Interval 

56.6     I 
54-2     I 
52        0 

52        4 

51 
50 
49.8 
46.8 

I 
2 
3 
3 

52.8     5 
53-4     5 
52.2     3 
50.6     3 

61.4     0 
56.4     0 
57       0 
57        0 

60        I 

53.8     I 
52.6     5 

51-4 
49.8 
50.6 
52.4 

0 
0 
0 
0 

Total 

214.8     6 

197.6 

9 

209.0  16 

231.8    0 

221.4    9 

204.2 

0 

Diff. 
% 

—2.7 
— 1.2 

—9.4 

—4-5 

-0.6 
— 0.3 

—34-6 
—13.0 

+10 

+4.7 

+5.2 
+2.6 

APPENDIX  B 

(Presenting  data  relevant  to  the  Experiment  on  Attention,  pp.  76-I73-) 


0 

e 

0 

Q 

0 

Q 

Fig.  2.  (Seep.  76)  Arrangement  of  com- 
partments in  cabinet   for  card-sorting. 


Fig.  I 
Symbol  on  cards 

Cardsorting 
Instructions  to  reagents 

1.  This  is  a  test  in  "reaction  with  discrimination  and  choice."  On  each  of  the 
packs  of  fifty  cards  the  time  and  errors  will  be  recorded.  Speed,  therefore, 
should  be  aimed  at,  yet  the  sorting  should  be  accurate.  Time  will  be  saved 
if  you  get  a  dependable  mental  scheme  of  the  compartments  rather  than 
directly  matching  the  cards,  which,  although  necessary  at  first,  makes  sorting 
wait  upon  the  eye.  — 

2.  In  the  final  introspections  of  the  day  note : 

(a)  Any  special  hindrances  or  helps  to  the  sorting, 

(b)  Your  mental  scheme,  if  any, 

(c)  Any  development  or  change  in  your  scheme, 

(d)  What    demanded    attention    most?      Any    tendency    to    name    or 

pronounce? 

(e)  Whether  the  sorting  is  fatiguing, 

(i)  Any  bodily  strain, 
(2)   Any  mental  strain, 

(f)  Whether  sorting  is  agreeable  or  otherwise, 

(g)  Any  change  in  these  respects  from  previous  introspections.     (Ap- 
plicable only  after  the  first  day.) 

3.  In  introspections  noted  between  packs  mention  briefly  a  few  of  the 
more  important  points  about  the  process  of  sorting  that  occur  to  you. 

4.  Look  over  the  cards  on  the  cabinet  so  you  will  be  able  to  distinguish 
the  symbols  readily. 

5.  The  procedure  will  be : 

(a)  Arrange  first  pack  conveniently  in  hand,  and  take  position  com- 

fortably before  the  cabinet. 

(b)  Throw  on  the  table  the  blank,  at  announcement  of  "Go!" 

(c)  Sort  cards,  aiming  for  speed  and  accurate  work.     As  last  card 

leaves  hand  announce  "Now  !" 

(d)  Note  brief  introspections. 

(e)  Like  procedure  with  remaining  three  packs,  taking  them  in  order. 

(f)  After  the  last  pack  of  the  day,  note  your  introspections  in  fuller 

form. 

Fig.  3  (See  p.  76) 


APPENDIX    B  289 

aatanetntaeneaatanetntaeneeaeneatntenatta 

tanetnaene 

Fig  4.  Sample  series  of  stimuli  used  in  the  typewriter-reaction  (see  pp.  52,  y6). 


Poets 

Philosophers 

Statesmen 

Scientists 

Musicians 

Homer 

Plato 

Pitt 

Faraday 

Beethoven 

Virgil 

Socrates 

Gladstone 

Darwin 

Wagner 

Shakespeare 

Aristotle 

Washington 

Huxley 

Mozart 

Milton 

Kant 

Jefferson 

Watt 

Hayden 

Browning 

Locke 

Lincoln 

Tyndall 

Bach 

Tennyson 

Hume 

Webster 

Agassiz 

Mendelssohn 

Goethe 

Hegel 

Roosevelt 

Galileo 

Handel 

Whittier 

Pythagoras 

Napoleon 

Helmholz 

Verdi 

Poe 

Spinoza 

Bismark 

Newton 

Paderweski 

Longfellow 

Descartes 

Burke 

Ohm 

Paganini 

Fig.  5.    The  names  of  men  in  the  classes  used  for  Controlled  Reaction. 

(See  p.  77) 


Series  i 

Homer 

Pitt 

Beethoven 

Faraday 

Plato 


Series  2 

Darwin 

Virgil 

Wagner 

Gladstone 

Mozart 


Series  3 

Socrates 

Shakespeare 

Huxley 

Milton 

Washington 


Series  4 

Aristotle 

Hayden 

Kant 

Watt 

Jefferson 


Series  5 

Browning 

Lincoln 

Bach 

Tyndall 

Locke 


Series  6 

Hume 

Agassiz 

Mendelssohn 

Webster 

Tennyson 


Series  7 

Roosevelt 

Galileo 

Hegel 

Handel 


Series  8 

Napoleon 

Goethe 

Helmholz 

Whittier 


Pythagoras        Spinoza 


Series  9 

Verdi 

Bismark 

Paderweski 

Poe 

Newton 


Series  10 

Descartes 

Ohm 

Paganini 

Burke 

Longfellow 


Fig.  6.    The  series  of  names  as  presented.  (See  p.  77) 


(a)  Intervals 


(b)  Series 


No. 

Scale 

Intensity^ 

I.  2 

3.  4 

5.6 

7,8 

9,  10 

I. 

20.16° 

•5 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

2. 

23-57 

-7 

7 

8 

9 

I 

2 

3. 

25.06 

.8 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

4- 

26.48 

.9 

2 

3 

4 

S 

6 

5. 

27.83 

i.o — Norm 

9 

I 

2 

3 

4 

6. 

29.12 

I.I 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

7. 

30.35 

1.2 

8 

9 

I 

2 

3 

8. 

32.68 

1.4 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

9. 

34-85 

1.6 

6 

7 

8 

9 

I 

*  From  Fechner  :  Psychophysik.  S.  181. 

Fig.  7.    Intervals  of  intensity,  and  series  as  presented  in  Sound  Discrimination. 
In  the  Series,  No.  2  is  the  reverse  of  No.  i.  (See  pp.  77,  78,  188) 


290  APPENDIX    B 


Fig.  8. 


Greater, 
Less, 
Like, 
Doubtful, 

> 

< 

III 
p 

Symbols 

used  in  recording 
(See 

jui 

dgments 
78) 

in  Sound  Discrimination, 

Series 

I                 2 

3 

4 

5 

3           4 

2 

2 

I 

Intensities* 

1  3 
4            I 

2  4 

3  2 
2              3 

4 

I 

3 

2 

4 
2 

3 
I 

2 

I 

3 

2 

4 
2 

3 

I 

4 
2 

4 

2 

3 

2 

I 

3 
4 

2 

I 

1  =  10°  =  0.12 

2  =  25°  =:  0.80 

3  =  40°  =2.10 

4  =  60°  =  5.00 

4                2 

I            4 

3  I 

4  3 

^Frora  Fechner's  Psycho- 
physik,  I  :i8i). 

Fig.  9.    Series  of  sounds  in  the  test  on  Memory  of  Sounds. 
(See  p.  78) 

Series  of  letters  and  figures 


(a) 

(b) 

(a) 

(b) 

(a) 

(b) 

(a) 

(b) 

(a) 

(b) 

K 

4 

C 

5 

P 

7 

G 

6 

L 

8 

S 

7 

V 

8 

H 

I 

L 

9 

G 

2 

B 

5 

J 

6 

Z 

8 

C 

7 

M 

9 

M 

2 

B 

3 

K 

5 

H 

4 

P 

6 

F 

6 

S 

7 

B 

9 

P 

8 

S 

I 

P 

I 

H 

2 

S 

4 

F 

3 

B 

5 

H 

3 

W 

4 

P 

6 

M 

5 

K 

7 

C 

8 

T 

9 

c 

2 

B 

I 

C 

3 

L 

2 

D 

3 

G 

5 

S 

4 

H 

6 

G 

*9 

K 

I 

N 

3 

K 

2 

P 

4 

Fig.  10.  The  series  of  (a)  consonants  used  in  the  test  on  Memory  of  Con- 
sonants, and  the  series  of  (b)  Digits  used  in  the  test  on  Memory  of 
Numerals ;  also  (c)  the  pairs  presented  in  the  test  on  Memory  of  asso- 
ciated Pairs.     (See  p.  79.) 


APPENDIX    B 


api 


cv 

r 

J 

r 

(c 

o 


Fig.  II.     The  series  of  symbols 
used  in  the  test  on  Memory 
of  Visual  Signs. 
(See  p.  79-) 

M — 
G 


RN 

Fig.  12.  Reproduction  of  size  and 
style  of  letter  and  spacing  used 
in  tests  on  Learning  i2-Conson- 
ant-Rectangles.     (See  pp.  8o,  82.) 


W- 

s- 
Q- 

N- 
S- 
B- 


W- 


-  R 
L 
M 

-N 
W- 
R 
T 
W 
R  - 

-S  - 


-D 

-N 
-T 
-N 
-L 
-R 
-R 
-N 
-M 


Fig 


The  letters  used  in  the  test  on  Word-jCompletion.     (P.  80.) 


Day* 


Reagent* 

Mn. 

Le. 


Practice  Currea. 

Bttenslve  Threshold  of  Visual  Attention.  Bcpoeure  of  12-letter< 
rectangle*  l/lO  Sec.     Curve*  ehow  arerage  number  of  Point*  per  dayi 
three  point*  1*  the  value  of  a  correctly  placed  reproduced  letter. 

The  curves  do  not  Indicate  that  the  training  of  18  day*  bad 
brought  the  capacity  to  it*  mtwlnwl  efficiency. 


5         6         7         8         9       10       11       12       13 

Fig.  14.     (See  text,  pp.  83,  93) 


lA     15     \r~\1~W 


2^2 


APPENDIX   B 


IS 


Beagenia 
Rt, 
SI. 


Praetlca  Cuttm. 

teaming  12-letier>rectanglss.  &posur«  10  S«e.  Currac 
show  average  number  of  points  per  experloent  per  day^  thrse 
points  is  the  value  of  a  reproduced  letter  correctly  placed* 

Maximal  efficiency  had  not  yet  been  attained. 


Days  1    2 


6    7    8    9   10   U   12   13   U   15   16   IV  IB 

Fig.  is.  (See  text,  p.  94) 


Baster  Vacation 


O^s 


6'    ?    3    3   l3   n  Yi      13   13   15   IS   17  la 

Fig.  16 
Analysis  of  Rt.'s  Practice  Curve  in  Learning  12-letter-rectangles,  accord- 


3    4 — r 


APPENDIX    B 


293 


ing  to  complexity  of  process,  showing  change  in  complexity  during  practice. 
The  curves  show  the  number  of  letters  reproduced  from  rectangles  according 
to  the  imagery  from  which  they  were  recorded;  e.g.,  on  the  first  day  80  letters 
were  recorded  from  rectangles  upon  which  the  Kinaesthetic  (verbal)  imagery 
alone  was  used,  40  letters  from  rectangles  upon  which  Kin.  and  Visual 
imagery  were  coordinated,  17  letters  from  rectangles  for  which  the  three- 
fold coordination  of  Kin.  +  Associations -|- Vis.  imagery  was  used.  (See 
text,  pp.  95,  176.) 

At  the  beginning  most  of  the  work  was  done  in  Kin.  A.  imagery  which 
as  a  single-fold  method  disappeared  on  the  6th  day.  The  two-fold  method 
was  dominant  on  the  4th,  5th,  and  6th  days.  From  the  7th  day  the  three- 
fold and  four-fold  coordinations  predominated.  The  course  of  practice  is 
toward  greater  complexity  of  the  process. 

Easter  vacation  caused  a  lapse  to  the  status  of  learning  of  the  6th  day, 
after  which  the  same  development  in  complexity  of  coordination  takes  place 
as  that  on  the  7th  and  8th  days. 


t«r« 

X50 

140 

130 

120 

110 

100 

90 

60 

70 

60 
50 
40J 
30 
20j 
10 
0 
Days  1 


Rsagerit  Rt. 


Kinaesthotle 

. . .  Visual 

Associations 


2         3         4         5         6         7         8        5       10       11       12       13       ^14      15       16       17       iB 

Fig.  17 

Analysis  of  Rt.'s  Practice  Curve  in  Learning  12-letter-rectangles,  according 
to  the  number  of  letters  reproduced  from  each  kind  of  imagery  during  the 
day,  disregarding  the  complexity  of  method  in  coordinations,  e.g.,  on  the  first 
day  125  letters  were  reproduced  from  Kinaesthetic  (Verbal)  imagery,  18  from 
Visual  imagery,  and  8  from  Associations.     (See  text,  p.  174.) 

Associations  for  Rt.  were  usually  visual  images  of  words,  as  "Chemically 
Pure"  for  holding  the  letters  C  P. 

It  is  evident  that  the  principal  rise  in  the  practice  curve  is  caused  by  the 
growing  frequency  of  Visual  and  Association  letters,  i.e.,  by  the  growth  in 
the  process  of  the  auxiliary  forms  of  imagery.  The  letters  rtoroduced  on 
the  I2th  day  are  similar  to  those  reproduced  on  the  3d  day  in  that  they  are 
alphabetic  symbols ;  in  the  mind  of  the  reagent,  however,  they  differ  greatly 
in  kind  of  letter — they  are  more  dominantly  visual  and  visually  word-bound 
symbols,  less  rote-letters  in  the  muscles  of  the  tongue. 


294 


APPENDIX    B 


ReagsDt  Ly. 


—  First  Third. 

—  Second  Ttaira. 

—  Third  Third. 


240 


Fig.  i8 

Curves  show  distribution  of  Reaction  to  Sound  in  the  first,  second  and 
third  thirds  of  Ly.'s  training  (iioo  reactions);  only  the  reactions  with  the 
Morse  key  at  lOO-gram  tension  being  chosen  (270  reactions).  Reactions  from' 
91  to  100  sigma  are  plotted  on  100.     (See  text,  p.  lOi). 

Practice-effect  involved  change  in  processes. 


APPENDIX  C 

Scoring  the   r2-letter-rectangle 

If  a  single  score  is  to  measure  the  power  of  reproduction,  it  must  give 
value  to  a  reproduced  letter  when  it  is  misplaced  in  the  record ;  and  it  would 
seem  that  this  value  should  be  less  than  the  value  given  to  a  correctly  placed 
letter,  and  should  vary  with  the  degree  of  spatial  reproduction  as  indicated 
by  the  amount  of  misplacement.  Any  system  of  values,  nevertheless,  is  arbi- 
trary, since  it  will  favor  some  methods  of  learning  and  reproduction  more 
than  others. 

Let  the  following  scheme  represent  the  relative  positions  on  a  i2-letter- 
rectangle : 

j  c  b  a  a  =  Correct    position,    and    may    be    in    any 

space  on  the  card. 

b  =  x\djacent  space  on  the  line. 
kg  f  d  c  =  Second  remove  on  the  line. 

d  =  Adjacent  space  in  the  column. 

e  =  Second  remove  in  the  column. 
1  i  h  e  f  =  Space  adjacent  at  corner. 

Etc. 
If  the  reproduced  letter  belongs  in  position  a,  in  the  above  scheme,   (and 
that  may  be  in  any  space  on  the  card),  we  may  compare  several  ways  of 
scoring  noticed  in  the  text  (p.  80)  : 

Points  Text(i)'  Winch=  Smith*  Text  (2)* 

3      ;=  a  a  a  a 

2      =  b,  c,  j  b,  d  b,  c  b,  d,  f 

I       =  d,  e  c,  e  d,  e,  f,  g,  h,  i,  j,  k,  1  c,  e,  g,  h,  i,  j,  k,  i 

o       =  f,  g,  h,  i,  k,  1  f,  g,  h,  i,  j,  k,  1  

A  rote  method  of  learning  by  the  line  would  be  favored  by  Text  (i)  and 
Smith,  for  its  misplacements  would  be  more  frequently  made  within  the  line ; 
by  the  column,  by  Winch,  for  a  similar  reason.  A  visual  reproduction  would 
be  favored  by  Text  (2),  since  /  is  a  proximate  location;  and  vague  repro- 
duction by  Smith  and  Text  (2),  since  they  offer  no  zero  value  for  repro- 
duced letters.  In  partial  justification  of  the  zero  value  it  may  be  urged  that 
over  half  of  the  consonants  of  the  alphabet  are  on  the  card,  and  that  mere 
guessing  would  raise  the  score  of  reproduction  in  over  half  of  the  guesses, 
especially  when  some  of  the  consonants  are  known  and  the  chance  for  correct 
guesses  is  consequently  increased.  If  the  letters  are  really  reproduced, 
however,  they  should  contribute  to  the  score. 

Perhaps  the  assignment  of  values  should  not  be  made  until  all  the  mis- 
placements of  a  given  reagent  are  tabulated  and  the  various  kinds  of  mis- 
placement are  compared  with  degrees  of  reproduction  as  revealed  by  an 
analysis  of  his  mental  processes ;  then  the  values  could  be  assigned  with 
reference  to  the  degree  of  reproduction,  which  might  be  found  to  decrease 
with  the  frequency  of  the  kinds  of  misplacement. 


!  P-  80. 

"Winch:  Br.  Jr.  Psychol,  i:  129;  also  Whipple's  Manual  (ist  ed.)  p.  369. 
"Smith:     Mind.     N.   S.  4:52.     The  writer's   interpretation   of   the   rather 
indefinite  text  is  given  here. 
*P.  187. 


296  APPENDIX    C 

Such  a  tabulation  was  made  of  the  results  from  20  experiments  by  each  of 
ten  reagents  in  Tests  13  and  17,  and  it  was  found  that  although  there  was 
considerable  variation  between  the  different  reagents  in  the  number  of  letters 
misplaced  in  20  experiments  (12-44,  with  an  average  of  15%  of  all  reproduced 
letters  in  Test  13;  7-38,  with  an  average  of  29%  of  all  reproduced  letters  in 
Test  17),  within  each  test  large  individual  variation  in  the  kind  of  misplacing 
involved  a  few  kinds  only  (in  Test  13,  misplacings  c  and  d;  in  Test  17,  b,  d, 
and  f).  li  frequency  as  found  in  the  aggregate  results  would  not  call  for  a 
division  of  these  particular  kinds  of  misplacing  into  different  classes  for 
evaluation,  a  system  of  evaluations  upon  the  basis  of  aggregate  results  might 
be  available  for  general  application.  This  condition  is  fulfilled,  as  may  be 
seen  from  the  following  tables,  but  it  necessitates  a  separate  system  of 
evaluations   for  each  of   the  two  tests. 

All  of  the  misplacings  of  all  of  the  reagents  in  each  test  were  tabulated 
and  calculated  with  the  following  aggregate  results  (reduced  to  the  average 
number  of  letters  so  placed  in  one  experiment)  : 


j 

c 

i6 

b 

a 

J 

■  1  e; 

c 

,t  1/      -- 
b 

a 

.01 

.215 

■42 

6.97 

.CIS 

.065 

.285 

2.245 

k 

g 

f 

d 

k 

g 

f 

d 

.015 

.085       , 

.11 

.26 

.020 

.080 

.160 

.200 

1 

i 

h 

e 

1 

i 

h 

e 

.01 

.025 

.03 

•035 

.000 

■045 

.015 

•045 

But  these  amounts  show  the  actual  distribution  of  misplacings ;  if  we 
assume  that  a  misplacement  which  occurs  more  frequently  should  be  penalized 
less  in  the  score  measuring  reproduction  than  one  which  occurs  less  fre- 
quently (introspections  are  not  full  enough  to  indicate  clearly  whether  it 
should),  our  system  of  arbitrary  values  could  not  be  taken  from  the  distribu- 
tions shown  above  for  the  reason  that  the  chance  of  making  some  misplacings 
is  much  greater  than  that  of  making  others ;  e.g.,  in  chance  guessing  the 
misplacement  /  would  occur  24  times  to  /  4  times.  We  should  need  this 
distribution  as  modified  by  the  relative  chances  of  the  misplacings. 

The  Ratio  of  Recorded  to  Chance  Misplacings  would  seem  to  meet  this 
need.  If  position  a  is  moved  systematically  over  the  card,  occupying  in  turn 
every  one  of  the  12  spaces,  there  would  aggregate  132  possible  misplacings 
distributed  over  the  lettered  relative  positions  as  follows :  24,  f ;  18,  b ;  16,  d, 
g;  12,  c,  h ;  8,  e,  i,  k;  6,  j ;  4,  i.  According  to  these  chance  values  of  the 
positions  the  1.27  misplacings  (per  experiment)  of  Test  13,  and  the  0.93 
misplacings  per  experiment  of  Test  17,  could  be  distributed ;  position  d,  in 
Test  13  would  then  have  the  value  of  .153  instead  of  .26,  the  ratio  of  its 
actual  occurrence  to  chance  occurrence  being  1.70.  These  ratios  calculated 
for  all  the  relative  positions  are  presented  in  the  following  table : 


APPENDIX  C 


297 


Ratio  of  Recorded  to  Chance  Misplacing. 


/ 

Test 

13 

'   "  1 

j 

c 

b 

a 

J 

0.17 

1.87 

2.44 

•35 

k 

g 

f 

d 

k 

.20 

1 

.56 
i 

.48 

h 

1.70 
e 

■35 

1 

.27 

■33 

.26 

.46 

0.00 

-Test  17- 


•77 
g 

i 
.80 


b 
2.24 

f 

•95 


d 
1.77 

e 

.80 


But  it  might  be  objected  that  we  do  not  still  have  a  measure  of  the  relative 
frequency  of  the  respective  misplacings,  since  owing  to  the  reagent's  direction 
of  his  attention  to  one  portion  of  the  card  rather  than  to  another,  the  letters 
which  in  reproduction  were  misplaced  may  not  have  been  distributed  evenly 
over  the  12  positions.  Calculation  sustains  the  objection  so  far  as  it  suspects 
irregular  distribution  over  the  positions ;  The  range  in  Test  13  is  13  (in 
the  1st  position)  to  33  (in  the  7th  position)  ;  in  Test  17,  7  (positions  9  and 
11)  to  41  (position  4).  When  the  actual  chances  for  the  respective  misplac- 
ings are  calculated,  however,  the  results  showing  relative  frequency  of  mis- 
placings are  substantially  the  same  as  in  the  tables  above : 

Ratio  of  Recorded  to  "Actual"  chance  misplacing. 

/ Test  13 \  / Test  17 n 

j  c  b  a  j  c  b  a 

.20  1.87  2.33  .30  .77  2.39 


k 

g 

f 

d 

k 

g 

f 

d 

.22 

•53 

•44 

1.67 

■33 

.69 

.96 

1.71 

1 

i 

h 

e 

1 

i 

h 

e 

•32 

•35 

■27 

•49 

.0 

.86 

.21 

.86 

And  if  instead  of  pooling  the  results  of  20  experiments  by  each  of  a  dozen 
reagents  we  use  the  450  experiments  (like  Test  17)  by  a  single  reagent  (Mn.), 
in  which  the  habits  of  attention  may  be  expected  to  be  more  uniform  and 
consequently  more  disturbing  to  our  calculation  on  the  basis  of  "regular" 
chance,  the  range  in  irregular  distribution  being  from  4  (position  10)  to 
47  (position  4),  and  the  number  of  reproduced  letters  misplaced  being  242 
(5%),  we  get  the  following  remarkable  approximation  to  the  ratios  with 
"regular"   chance    distribution : 

Ratio  of  Recorded  to 
/^"Regular"  Chance  Misplacing— >  r-^Actual"  Chance  Misplacing--^ 

j  c  b  a  j  c  b  a 

.28  .41  3.22  .26  .41  3.32 


k 

g 

f 

d 

k 

g 

f 

d 

•55 

.62 

•92 

1. 18 

•52 

.61 

.96 

1. 19 

1 

i 

h 

e 

1 

i 

h 

e 

•27 

•34 

.27 

•41 

.26 

•34 

.28 

.41 

298  APPENDIX     C 

There  is  little  doubt  therefore  that  these  tables  furnish  us  with  fairly 
reliable  relative  frequencies  of  the  respective  misplacings  in  these  two  tests. 
Upon  the  assumptions  that  the  more  frequent  misplacing  should  be  penalized 
less  in  the  score,  that  three  points  shall  be  the  value  of  a  correctly  placed 
letter,  that  in  the  interest  of  facility  fractional  values  shall  be  avoided,  and 
that  great  injustice  is  not  likely  to  result  in  striking  an  approximate  balance 
between  over-evaluation  and  under-evaluation  of  respective  misplacings,  it 
would  seem  that  the  following  values  might  be  recommended   : 

Test  13.  (Exposure  10  sec.)  Test  17.  (Exposure  i/io  sec.) 
3=a  3=a 

2  =  b,  c,  d,  2  =  b,   f ,  d, 

I  =  all  others.  1 1=  all  others. 

The  arbitrariness  of  forcing  this  qualitative  difference  in  reproduction  into 
a  quantitative  difference,  has  already  been  remarked.  The  g  or  i  misplacings 
are  only  by  courtesy  to  the  strenuous  statistician  to  be  regarded  as  possessing 
one-half  the  reproductive  value  of  misplacings  b  or  d,  and  one-third  the 
reproductive  value  of  a  correctly  reproduced  letter.  Disregarded  also  is  the 
partiality  to  visual  memory:  letters  retained  in  vivid  visual  imagery  keep 
their  relative  positions ;  letters  reproduced  from  equally  vivid  auditory  or 
kinaesthetic  imagery  may  be  free  from  either  temporal  or  spatial  order. 

The  values  listed  under  Test  17  are  those  employed  in  our  Text  (2)  method 
of  scoring.  It  will  be  remembered  that  exposure  of  the  card  was  about  a 
tenth  of  a  second;  it  is  for  this  reason  that  /  is  a  proximate  position. 

Upon  re-scoring  Tests  13,  and  17,  the  average  scores  were  found  to  range 
in  points  from  15.5  to  27.3,  and  from  4.1  to  9.1,  respectively,  and  to 
increase  only  0.36,  and  0.61  points,  respectively.  Our  Test  (i)  method  was 
unsatisfactory,  therefore,  principally  because  it  is  an  arbitrary  method,  and, 
like  many  mental  test  methods  of  measurement,  confuses  process  and  product. 
Its  difference  from  other  methods  of  scoring,  equally  arbitrary,  has  no  bear- 
ing on  our  treatment  of  results,  which,  the  reader  has  noted,  is  principally 
qualitative. 


APPENDIX  D 


Influence  of  Subliminal  Differences  upon  Judgment  in  Stimulus  Comparison 
(Discrimination)  (See  Text,  p.  185) 

In  experiments  on  Sensible  discrimination  in  which  the  Method  of  Constant 
Changes,  Right  and  Wrong  Cases,  is  employed,  it  is  commonly  observed  that, 
if  the  steps  between  stimulus-differences  are  small  enough,  iR  Cases  (correct 
judgments  on  "greater"  or  "less")  fall  off  regularly  with  the  decrease  in 
stimulus-difference  even  when  these  steps  fall  below  the  difference  which  is 
conventionally  designated  as  the  "Least  Noticeable  EHfference."  (50%  R  Cases. 
vid.  Kiilpe :  Outlines  of  Psychology,  p.  69;  or  Titchener :  A  Text-book  of 
Psychology,  p.  213).  This  influence  of  "subliminal"  differences  upon  judg- 
ment in  stimulus  comparison  may  be  illustrated  from  our  own  data,  if  we 
aggregate  the  judgments  of  all  reagents  upon  each  of  the  intervals  (stimulus- 
differences)  in  the  respective  tests  and  practices  in  Sensible  Discrimination. 

If  we  call  the  interval  between  the  variable  of  least  intensity  and  the  norm 
the  first,  and  the  interval  between  the  variable  of  greatest  intensity  and  the 
norm  the  last  (7th  or  9th),  we  get  the  following  table  of  R  Cases,  in  per  cent: 

Interval  abed 


I        77 

92 

85 

78 

2                  67 

65 

57 

70 

3        49 

50 

31 

59 

4        39 

31 

23 

38 

5  =  Norm 

6        59 

49 

41 

41 

7        79 

55 

53 

62 

8 

76 

74 

65 

9 

84 

84 

75 

(160  judgments   on 
(120  judgments   on 


a  =  Discrimination    of    Brightness    (180    judgments    on    each    interval,    14 
reagents)  1904-5.     (Text,  pp.  42ff.) 

b  =  Discrimination   of    Sound   with    Sound    Pendulum 
each  interval,  16  reagents)  1910-1911.  (Text,  pp.  I34ff.) 

c  ==  Discrimination   of    Sound   with   Sound   Pendulum 
each  interval,  12  reagents)   1911-1912.     (Text,  pp.  2o6ff). 

d  =  Discrimination  of  Sound  with  Fall  Phonometer  (96  judgments  on  each 
interval (  2  reagents)  1911-1912.     (Text,  i88ff). 

The  facts  of  the  table  are  more  apparent  in  the  curves  drawn  from  it : 

Intervals  1  23  45  678  9 

100^  Norn 

90^ 

eo% 

50^ 
40f. 

The  "Least  Noticeable  Difference"  is  50%   R  Cases. 


INDEX 
(For  the  Name  Register  consult  the  Bibliography). 

Adding  Test,  5. 

Anomalies  in  experimental  results,  65  ff ;  causes  of,  68. 

Anomalous  practice-effects,  in  tests  on  Learning  12-letter-rectangles, 
153-4;  on  Extensive  Threshold  of  Visual  Attention,  163,  173; 
on  Recognition  or  Choice  of  i  of  2  Letters,  201 ;  on  Reproduc- 
tion and  Recognition  of  Letters  on  12-consonant-rectangles,  205  ; 
on  Memory  for  Visual  Symbols,  Immediate  Memory,  215. 

Association,  with  areas  of  rectangles,  7,  8;  with  weights,  8. 

Associations,  representative  vs.  auxiliary,  in  memory  experiments 
24;  a  'common  factor,'  26;  occurrence  of,  in  training  on  Exten- 
sive Threshold  of  Visual  Attention,  85,  92 ;  in  training  on  Learn- 
ing 12-letter-rectangles,  95  ff,  98ff ;  in  tests  on  Memory  of  Con- 
sonants, 143;  Digits,  146;  Visual  signs,  148;  paired  associates, 
149;  Learning  12-letter-rectangles,  151  ff;  learning  with  dis- 
traction, 155-6. 

Attention,  a  'common  factor,'  19,  23 ;  Experiment  upon,  70 ;  measure- 
ment of,  70  f;  tests  of,  72,  106  ff;  training  of,  73,  82  ff;  our 
tests  inadequate  for  measurement  of,  183. 

Blickensderfer  typewriter,  used  in  training  on  typewriter-reaction, 
51,  in  tests,  76,  yy. 

Card-sorting,  reported  from  the  literature,  10,  11,  12,  14;  in  ex- 
perimentation: (Training)  :  50-1,  changes  in  processes  in,  62; 
(Tests)  :  procedure  in,  75-6;  cabinet  for,  75 ;  test  results,  118  ff; 
variability  in  processes  in,  119  ff;  change  in  processes  during  test 
in,  122-3. 

Cancellation  test,  reported  from  the  literature,  9;  marking  out  a's 
and  o's,  procedure,  75;  test  results,  ii4ff;  variability  in  proces- 
ses in,  ii4ff;  see  Marking  out  words,  34. 

Changes  in  processes,  68 ;  see  also,  Tests ;  as,  Reaction  to  Sound, 
Cancellation,  etc.,  see  also,  Practice. 

Chinese  Legation,  training  and  efficiency  of,  3. 

Cicero,  23. 

College  Grades  and  professional  success,  3. 

Color  perception,  6,  7. 

'Common  Factor,'  The,  as  found  by  Ebert  and  Meumann,  19;  by 
Fracker,  22 ;  by  Sleight,  28 ;  in  Marking  out  words,  36  ff ;  analy- 
sis of,  224  ff;  formerly  thought  simple,  now  complex,  224; 
quest  for,  through  analysis  of  processes,  226  ff,  and  of  the 
effect  of  practice  upon  these  processes,  227  ff ;  formal  factors 
found,  230;  is  a  formal  factor  in  'Spread  of  Training,'  is 
material  of  experience  in  'Transference,'  230;  relative  promi- 


302  INDEX 

nence  of  these  two  kinds,  in  the  literature,  230-1 ;  both  selected 
from  experience,  231 ;  provisional  classification  of  possible,  232; 
summary,  239. 

Complete  learning,  in  memory  experiments,  17,  212. 

Complexity  of  process,  in  discrimination  of  sound,  47-8 ;  in  estimat- 
ing weights,  41 ;  see  also  Tests,  Training,  and  Analysis  of 
Common  Factor. 

Consciousness,  Eight-level  clearness  in  content  of,  in  Extensive 
Threshold  of  Visual  Attention,  88  flF. 

Control  experiments,  in  Sensible  Discrimination,  44 ;  in  Reaction  with 
Discrimination  and  Choice,  52 ;  in  Experiment  on  Attention,  73 ; 
on  Reproduction,  186. 

Controlled  Reaction,  (Test)  :  Apparatus  and  procedure,  yy;  test  re- 
sults, 131 ;  variation  in  processes,  131 ;  change  in  processes  dur- 
ing test,   133. 

Critique  of  Test-Training-Test  type  of  experiment,  219;  necessity 
for  analysis  of  processes,  219;  illustration  by  hypothetical  ex- 
periment, 220  fif ;  merely  quantitative  treatment  of  results  worth- 
less, 221 ;  consequent  meaninglessness  of  Probable  Error  as  in- 
dex of  reliability,  221 ;  tests  should  include  sufficient  number  of 
experiments,  223  ;  should  be  limited  in  number,  223 ;  can  be  made 
equivalent  by  use  of  Miiller's  'cyclical  changes,'  223 ;  training 
should  be  more  rigorous,  223 ;  control  reagents  should  be  equal 
to  the  regular  reagents  in  number  and  ability,  223-4 ;  mathemat- 
ical treatment  of  results  may  be  simple,  224 ;  summary,  239. 

Cross-education,  3  f . 

Danish  language  discriminates  between  the  general  and  special  effects 
of  practice,  33. 

Discrimination  of  sound  intensities,  (Test)  :  In  Experiment  on  At- 
tention, Apparatus  and  Procedure,  77-8;  test  results,  134; 
analysis  of  processes,  135;  variability  in  processes,  136  f; 
(Training)  :  In  experiment  in  Sensible  discrimination,  42  ff;  In 
Experiment  on  Reproduction,  188;  analysis  of  processes,  190  fif; 
'Free  judgments,'  191 ;  'classification,'  192-3,  195 ;  'personifica- 
tion,' 193  ;  Change  in  processes  in  practice,  193  ;  individual  differ- 
ences, 190-196;  quantitative  results,  196  fif;  no  improvement  in 
capacity,  197-8;  (Test)  :  In  Experiment  on  Reproduction:  Pro- 
cedure, 188;  results,  206;  analysis  of  processes,  206:  individual 
diflferences,  207-210;  Interference,  209-210;  retrogression  in  ca- 
pacity due  to  indirect  methods  of  dealing  with  stimuli,  210; 
range  in  initial  capacity,  211. 

Discrimination  of  touch,  6 ;  of  colors,  7 ;  of  pitch,  7. 

Distraction,  Habituation  to,  5,  6. 

'Double  Fatigue  Order'  for  eliminating  practice-effect  in  tests,  223. 

Drill,  coming  into  vogue  again,  242. 

Eminence  and  training,  3. 


INDEX  303 

Estimating  Weights,  Experiment  on,  39;  effect  of  training  in,  41  ff ; 
variability  in  and  complexity  of  processes,  41. 

Extensive  Threshold  of  Visual  Attention,  (Test)  :  apparatus  and 
procedure,  81;  test  results,  160;  variability  in  processes,  161; 
with  distraction  163;  (Training):  Results,  82  ff;  analysis  of 
processes,  83  ff,  91  ff,  93  f ;  development  of  8-level  clearness  of 
content,  88-89;  factors  of  improvement,  94;  variable  influences 
upon  the  score,  87-88,  91 ;  scoring  the  12-letter-rectangles,  295. 

'Faculty  Psychology,'  alleged  basis  of  Formal  Discipline,  i,  2. 

Formal  Discipline.  Definition,  i ;  assailed  by  eminent  educators,  i ; 
evidence  to  support,  3  ff ;  training  and  eminence,  3 ;  college 
grades  and  professional  success,  3 ;  Rhodes  Scholars  vary  with 
rigor  of  training,  3;  relationship  between  school  capacities,  3; 
the  data  of  'cross-education,'  3-4 ;  the  data  from  the  literature  of 
experimental  psychology,  5  ff. 

Formal  training,  241. 

General  Effect  of  Special  Practice,  178  ff,  218-9,  see  also  'Transfer- 
ence,' and  'Spread  of  Training.' 

Habituation  to  distraction,  5. 

Herbartians,  2. 

Herbartian  Psychology,  2. 

Imagery :  Visual  forms,  22 ;  varying  value  of,  23 ;  vicarious  func- 
tioning of,  22,  23-4,  28,  48  ff,  136  ff,  139  ff,  148,  191  ff,  211  ff, 
217;  coordination  of  fourfold  content,  in  Learning  12-letter- 
rectangles,  96 ;  'maturing'  vague,  83,  85  ff,  89  ff . 

Individual  differences,  causes  of  large,  69. 

Individual  variation,  in  training  on  Tachistoscopic  work,  91  ff ,  94  ff ; 
in  test  results,  82  ff,  167  ff,  199  ff;  see  also  Variability. 

Inducted  effect  of  state  of  alertness  from  experimenter  to  reagent, 
83-84. 

'Interference,'  10,  23;  in  the  less  simple  processes,  11;  drops  away 
rapidly  with  time,  11;  in  relation  to  practice-effect,  14;  caused 
by  change  of  form  of  response,  27;  provision  for  testing  for,  in 
Discrimination  of  sound,  185,  209,  210;  compared  to  negative 
special  effect  of  special  practice,  219. 

Introspection,  function  of,  181,  220.  224,  226,  240;  limitation  of, 
185,  203,  226;  on  the  'intervals'  or  'moments'  of  an  experiment, 
187,  199  ff. 

Laboratory  experimentation,  contribution  of.  and  limitations  of, 
241. 

Learning  12-Consonant-Rectangles:  (Test):  Apparatus  and  pro- 
cedure, 80;  results,  150;  analysis  of  processes,  151  ;  variation  and 
changes  in  processes,  151,  152,  i74ff;  method  of  scoring,  295; 
(Training):  94  ff,  98;  Changes  in  processes  during  training, 
94  ff,  98;  factors  in  improvement,  97  f,  lOi  ;  influences  upon 
score  in,  97,  loi. 


304  INDEX 

Learning  process,  related  to  general  effect  of  special  practice,  240; 
see  also  Practice-Curve. 

Letter-squares,  scoring  of,  80,  82,  Appendix  C.  295. 

Marbe  color  mixer,  43. 

Marking  Out  as  and  o's  {Test),  procedure,  75;  results,  113,  116; 
variation  in  processes,  114,  116. 

Marking  out  Words,  Experiment  in,  34  ff;  change  in  processes  in, 
2)7;  variability  of  processes  in,  37-9;  anomalous  processes  in, 
38,  68;  'common  factor'  in  improvement  and  transference,  36  ff ; 
see  also  Word-Marking. 

'Maturing'  vague  imagery,  83,  85  f¥,  89  fif,  174,  204. 

Mean  Variation,  as  a  measure  of  attention,  108. 

Memory,  Immediate,  16. 

Memory  for  colors  and  odors,  28;  for  non-sense-syllables,  14,  15; 
for  poetry,  15,  20;  for  intensities  of  sound,  grays,  tones,  numbers 
etc.,  20;  for  school  material,  24  ff;  for  poetry  and  non-sense- 
syllables,  29;  for  visual  symbols,  {Test)  :  procedure,  188; 
analysis  of  processes,  variation  in  processes,  21 1-4;  vicarious 
functioning  of  imagery,  211  ff;  range  in  initial  efficiency,  214, 
215;  advantage  of  trained  reagents,  216,  217. 

Memory  of  intensities  of  sound  {Test)  :  Apparatus  and  procedure, 
78;  results,  138;  analysis  and  variability  of  processes,  139 ff; 
change  in  processes  during  test,  141;  of  Consonants  {Test): 
Apparatus  and  procedure,  79 ;  results,  142  ff ;  analysis  of,  varia- 
bility and  change  in,  processes,  142  ff;  of  Numerals  {Test): 
apparatus  and  procedure,  79 ;  results,  145  ff ;  analysis  of,  varia- 
bility and  change  in,  processes,  147;  of  Visual  Signs  {Test): 
Apparatus  and  procedure,  79;  results,  148;  analysis  of,  varia- 
ation  in  processes,  148;  of  paired  associates  {Test)  :  Apparatus 
and  procedure,  79;  results,  149;  analysis  of  and  variation  in 
proceses,  149. 

Memory-training,  23. 

Memory-training  with  mnemonics,  103. 

Mental  processes,  relations  between,  2;  variability  in,  70  ff ;  see  Tests 
and   Practice-Curve. 

'MentalTests,'  contribution  to  popular  notion  of  the  nature  of,  108. 

Method  of  Constant  Changes,  Right  and  Wrong  Cases,  43,  78, 
190  ff,  206. 

Miiller's  'cyclical  changes'  for  making  successive  tests  equivalent  in 
difficulty,  223. 

Per  Cent,  form  of  statement,  for  showing  change  in  efficiency,  67-9, 
224. 

Plateaus  of  growth  demand  effort,  242. 

Practice,  changes  processes,  227  ff ;  rate  of  improvement  as  related 
to  initial  efficiency,  124,  222;  changes  of  processes  during,  222; 
"Good  form"  in,  240  foot-note. 

Practice-Curve,  173;  Learning  12-letter-rectangles  involves  changes 


INDEX  305 

in  complexity  of  processes,  95,  175-6,  292-3,  and  in  kind  of  pro- 
duct, 174,  293;  changes  in  simple  reaction  to  sound,  loi  f.  294. 

Practice-effect,  permanence  of,  64  foot-note,  64,  67 ;  general  and  spe- 
cific, 32-3,  64;  negative,  in  learning  12-letter  rectangles,  154; 
involves  changes  in  processes,  174;  see  'Transference,'  and 
'Spread  of  Training.' 

Professional  success  and  college  grades,  3. 

'Psychergograph,'  The,  126;  improvised  from  typewriter,  51. 

Reaction  to  classes  of  men,  as.  Poets,  Philosophers,  etc.,  upon  auditory 
stimulus  of  names  of  individual  men,  as  Plato,  Browning,  etc., 
See  Controlled  Reaction,  yy,  131. 

Reaction  to  sound  {Training)  :  In  experiment  on  Reproduction, 
loi  ff ;  change  in  processes  in,  loi  ff ;  (Test)  :  Procedure,  74; 
results,  108. 

Reaction  with  discrimination  and  choice,  Experiment  in,  50  ff ;  errors 
are  correlated  with  longer  time  for  series,  54 ;  causes  of  errors, 
55  ;  see  Typewriter-reaction,  and  Card-Sorting. 

Reaction-time,  9. 

"Recognition  or  choice  of  one  of  two  letters,"  (Test)  :  Procedure, 
186;  results,  199;  analysis  of  and  variation  in  processes,  199; 
quantitative  analysis,  200;  choices  distributed  according  to  cer- 
tainty, 201 ;  in  "uncertain"  choices,  time  is  a  function  of  R 
cases,  202 ;  influence  of  preceding  cards,  202-3 !  'maturing'  of 
'fringe'  imagery,  204. 

Reproduction,  (Tests)  :  (i)  Recognition  or  Choice  of  One  of  Two 
Letters,  186,  199;  (2)  Reproduction  and  Recognition  of  Letters, 
187,  205;  (3)  Sound  Discrimination,  206;  (4)  Memory  for 
visual  symbols,  201;  Experiment  on,  184  ff;  Procedure  in  tests, 
186;  results,  199  ff;  results  illustrate  worthlessness  of  purely 
quantitative  treatment,  205 ;  anomalous  results,  206 ;  variation 
in  processes,  206;  results  of  training  on  Sound  Discrimination, 
188  ff. 

Retina,  transference  of  fixation  motives  from  fovea  to  periphery,  30. 

Reversible  perspective,  30. 

Rhodes  Scholars,  3. 

Rhythm,  a  'common  element,'  26,  27. 

Scholarship  varies  with  rigor  of  training,  3. 

School  capacities,  3. 

Score,  influences  upon  in  Extensive  Threshold  of  Visual  Attention, 
87-88,  91  ;  in  Learning  12-letter-rectangles,  97,  loi ;  influence  of 
method  on,  152;  made  unreliable  by  including  large  practice- 
effect,  221  f. 

Scoring  the  12-letter- rectangle,  295. 

Sensible  Discrimination  of  Sounds  and  Brightness,  Experiment  in, 
42  ff ;  transference  shown  46;  analysis  of  process,  47  f. 

Sensitivity,  limen  for  light  lowered  by  simultaneous  sensation  of 
sound,  5,  6. 


306  INDEX 

'Special'  practice,  always  somewhat  general,   13,  32-3,   172,   i8o-ij. 

2l8f. 

'Specific  training'  said  to  be  specific  in  its  effects,  28. 

'Spread  of  Training'  as  defined  by  Fracker,  in  which  the  common 
factor  is  a  conscious  or  subconscious  connection,  225 ;  as  used 
in  this  text  involves  spread  of  modes  of  mental  processes,  which 
contrasts  with  'Transference'  of  content  of  experience,  230; 
experimental  test  for,  184;  a  case  of  negative,  in  memory  for 
visual  symbols,  216,  and  from  simple  reaction  to  typewriter- 
reaction,  181 ;  positive,  from  'literal'  prose  to  visual  symbols, 
215,  216. 

Statistical  treatment  of  results :  Per  Cent  form  of  statement,  67,  68, 
69,  224;  see  Critique  of  the  Test-Training-Test  type  of  experi- 
ment, 219  ff. 

Subliminal  Differences  influence  judgment  in  Sensible  Discrimina- 
tion, 185,  299. 

Tachistoscopic  work;  see  Extensive  threshold  of  visual  attention,  81,. 
83  ff,  160  ff;  Learning  12-letter- rectangles,  80  f,  94  ff.  150  ff; 
Memory  tests,  79,  142  ff ;  Reproduction  tests,  186,  199  ff. 

Tapping,  (Test):  Procedure,  81  f;  results,  164,  variability  in  pro- 
cesses, 165. 

Tests :  'Cyclical  changes'  for  making  successive  tests  equivalent  in. 
difficulty,  223 ;  'Double  fatigue  order'  for  eliminating  practice- 
effect,  223 ;  see  Marking  Out  Words,  Sensible  Discrimination, 
Reaction  with  Discrimination  and  Choice,  Reaction  to  Sound, 
Cancellation,  Cardsorting,  Typewriter-reaction,  Controlled  Re- 
action, Memory,  Learning  12-letter-rectangles,  Word-comple- 
tion, Trains  of  ideas,  Extensive  Threshold  of  Visual  Attention, 
Tapping,  Reproduction. 

Trains  of  ideas,  (Test)  :  Procedure,  81  ;  results,  158;  variability  in 
processes,  159. 

'Transference,'  causes  of,  19,  22,  28,  63-64,  65  ;  as  defined  by  Fracker, 
225  ;  as  used  in  text  involves  the  concrete  material  of  experience, 
and  contrasts  with  'Spread  of  Training,'  184,  225,  230;  anoma- 
lous cases  of,  65  f ,  68  f ;  causes  of  anomalous  cases  of,  68  ff ;  dis- 
agreement of  data  and  conclusions,  6y  f ;  case  of  negative  trans- 
ference from  maps  to  card-sorting,  181 ;  see  also  General  Effect 
of  Special  Practice. 

Typewriter,  used  to  prepare  material  for  Marking  Out  Words,  35 ; 
used  in  Reaction  with  Discrimination  and  Choice,  51  ff;  used  in 
typewriter-reaction,  76 ;  used  in  Controlled  Reaction,  yy ;  experi- 
ment in  learning  to  use  the,  30. 

Typewriter-reaction,  reported  from  the  literature,  1 1  f ;  ( Training)  : 
Procedure  and  results,  50-1 ;  change  in  processes  during  train- 
ing in,  63;  (Test)  :  Apparatus  and  procedure,  76;  results,  126; 
analysis  of,  variability  and  changes  in,  processes  during  test, 
129  ff. 


INDEX  307 

Variability  of  mental  processes :  Extent  of  radical  change  in  method 
during  tests,  167  fT;  extent  of  variation  in  initial  capacity  of 
reagents,  169;  causes  of,  171  ff ;  see  test  results  and  training  re- 
sults of  the  various  tests ;  as.  Reaction  to  Sound,  Cancellation, 
etc. 

Voluntary  control,  4,  30;  in  typewriting,  30flF;  in  drawing,  30;  in 
reversible  perspective,  30. 

Visual  imagery,  a  'common  factor,'  23,  26 ;  increased  in  use  but  not 
in  power  by  training,  30 ;  see  Imagery. 

Word-Completion,  {Test):  Apparatus  and  procedure,  80;  results, 
analysis  of  processes,  variation  in  processes,  157. 

Word-making,  reported  from  the  literature,  9 ;  see  Marking  Out 
Words. 


BIOGRAPHY 

John  Edgar  Coover  was  born  on  a  prairie  farm  near  Remington, 
Indiana,  March  i6,  1872.  In  infancy  he  moved  with  his  parents  to 
their  early  home  in  Cumberland  County,  Pennsylvania,  where  he 
started  to  a  village  school  in  the  winter  of  1877- 1878.  In  the  Spring 
of  1878  his  family  moved  to  a  farm  in  central  Kansas,  near  Dorrance, 
where  he  attended  a  country  school  for  about  four  years.  Another 
removal  to  a  still  newer  neighborhood,  in  the  same  county,  resulted  in 
poor  school  advantages  for  about  six  years.  In  the  Autumn  of  1890 
he  went  to  school  at  McPherson  College  (sectarian,  German  Baptist 
or  Brethren)  where  he  finished  his  study  of  the  common  branches 
and  learned  short-hand  and  typewriting.  In  the  Spring  of  the  next 
year  he  entered  an  office  on  the  Union  Pacific  Railway  where  during 
a  little  over  a  year's  station  work  he  learned  telegraphy. 

In  the  Spring  of  1892  he  left  home  for  Colorado  (Denver)  where 
he  revived  an  early  purpose  to  fit  himself  for  teaching  school.  After 
considerable  effort  during  a  time  while  he  worked  as  journeyman 
printer,  and  publisher  of  a  country  newspaper,  he  was  enabled  to 
enter  the  State  Normal  School  of  Colorado  (Greeley)  in  1893-1894, 
from  which  he  was  graduated  in  1898.  After  serving  as  principal  of 
schools  in  Como,  Colorado,  for  one  year,  he  entered  Stanford  Uni- 
versity (California)  (Autumn  of  1899),  where  in  January,  1904,  he 
received  the  A.B.  degree  in  Philosophy ;  and  in  May,  1905,  the 
M.A.  degree  in  Psychology  to  which  department  he  presented  a 
thesis  on  "Formal  Discipline  from  the  standpoint  of  experimental 
psychology"  (from  which  a  report  was  published,  in  collaboration 
with  Professor  Frank  Angell,  in  the  American  Jr.  Psychol.,  1907, 
18:328-340,  under  the  title  "General  Practice  effect  of  special 
exercise)." 

After  occupying  the  principalship  of  the  Tuolumne  County  High 
School  (Sonora,  California)  for  two  years,  and  of  the  Dixon  Union 
High  School  (Dixon,  California)  for  three  years,  he  returned  to 
Stanford  University,  became  assistant  in  the  Department  of  Psy- 
chology, and  pursued  research  for  two  years  more,  leading  to  the 
Ph.D.  degree. 

Secondary  and  higher  education  had  been  pursued  for  12  years, 
during  which  time  expenses  were  met  by  earnings  from  short-hand 
and  typewriting,  printing,  an  assistant  librarianship,  telegraph  oper- 
ating, and  teaching. 

The  present  research  occupied  four  school-years ;  during  three  and 
one-half  it  was  almost  wholly  experimental. 


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